The Reformation
In 1536, Henry VIII broke with Papal authority, fundamentally changed Ireland.
While Henry VIII broke English Catholicism from Rome, his son Edward VI of England moved further, breaking with Papal doctrine completely.
While the English, the Welsh and, later, the Scots accepted Protestantism, the Irish remained Catholic.
This fact determined their relationship with the British state for the next four hundred years, as the Reformation coincided with a determined effort on behalf of the English state to re-conquer and colonise Ireland.
The religious schism meant that the native Irish and the (Roman Catholic) Old English were excluded from power in the new settlement.
The Dissolution
In 1534 Henry had Parliament authorize Thomas Cromwell, to "visit" all the monasteries (which included all abbeys, priories and convents), ostensibly to make sure their members were instructed in the new rules for their supervision by the King instead of the Pope, but actually to inventory their assets.
A few months later, in January 1535 when the consternation at having a lay visitation instead of a bishop's had settled down, Cromwell's visitation authority was delegated to a commission of laymen including Layton, Pollard and Moyle.
This phase is termed the "Visitation of the Monasteries."
The Dissolution
The abbeys of England, Wales and Ireland had been among the greatest landowners and the largest institutions in the kingdom.
Particularly in areas far from London, the abbeys were among the principal centres of hospitality, learning, patronage of craftspeople and sources of charity and medical care.
The removal of over eight hundred such institutions virtually overnight left many gaps.
Map showing Tudor and Stuart era plantations in Ireland.
Not a single event but a more drawn out process.
Abbeygate St, Galway (Gooche 1583)
1557
Act of Parliament passed for plantation in Laois and Offaly.
Its main purpose was to secure the Pale.
1586
After the rebellion of Gerald Fitzgerald (Earl of Desmond), it was decided to plant portions of counties Cork, Kerry, Limerick, and Waterford in 1586.
1606
James Hamilton and Hugh Montgomery proposed a private, self-financed settlement of County Antrim and County Down to the recently-crowned King James I in 1606.
1610
After the Flight of the Earls, James I decided to take the opportunity to plant Gaelic Ulster.
Post-1610
Some partial plantations also followed after 1610, mainly on the east bank of the Shannon and in the south-east.
Laois-Offaly Plantation
In 1556, during the reign of Mary Tudor, the decision was taken to plant the counties of Laois and Offaly.
Laois became known as Queen’s County and its main town, Fort Protector, was renamed Maryborough (Portlaoise).
Offaly became King’s County and its main town, Daingean, was renamed Philipstown after Mary’s husband, King Philip II of Spain.
For over fifty years these planters met with fierce resistance from the native Irish and the scheme was largely unprofitable.
Maryborough Fort 1565
Church at Lynally Glebe
Memorials at Lynally Glebe
Coffy Clearke 1684 monument
Ballylin Passion Plaque 1688
Legacy of Plantation
Richard’s map of Birr c. 1690
Legacy of the Plantation
Map of Banagherc. 1630
Munster Plantation
A major confiscation of native Irish lands in counties Cork, Kerry, Limerick, and Waterford by the English crown in 1586, followed the death in rebellion of Gerald Fitzgerald, 15th and last Earl of Desmond (c. 1533–1583).
Originally estimated at some 245,000 ha/600,000 acres, the surveys and claims were greatly overstated and ultimately only half that amount was actually confiscated for (Protestant) English colonization.
Desmond Rebellions
South of Ireland dominated by the Butlers of Ormonde and the Fitzgeralds of Desmond.
For recourse to native law, Queen Elizabeth had the Fitzgerald brothers Gerald, John and James arrested and detained in London while Thomas Butler was pardoned.
With the three principal leaders of the Fitzgeralds imprisoned, James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald rebelled in June 1569 by attacking a colony near Kerrycurihy.
In February 1573 the rebels surrendered.
About 700 rebels and supporters were executed.
Desmond Rebellions
James Fitzmaurice survived the executions by fleeing to mainland Europe.
In Europe he tried to gain support to restore Catholicism in Ireland and he landed with a combined Spanish-Italian army of 700 to 800 men in Dingle, County Kerry.
Several clans joined the Irish-Spanish-Italian army on its advance through Munster, destroying English properties as they went.
Fitzmaurice was killed near Tipperary.
At the end of 1579 they reached the east coast where the towns Youghal and Kinsale were plundered.
Desmond Rebellions
In 1580, Leinster insurgents, led by Feach MacHugh O'Byrne defeated and butchered a large English force in the Battle of Glenmalure.
But English forces in Munster had recaptured Youghal and hanged the Lord Mayor, Patrick Coppinger.
During the spring of 1581 the rebels found themselves blocked from the rest of Ireland and the main seaports. Like the combined Irish-Spanish-Italian force the English left a path a destruction behind.
Most insurgents surrendered on terms in the course of 1581 (O’Byrne wasn’t defeated until 1597).
Gerald Fitzgerald was killed in the Slieve Mish mountains in November 1583.
Impact of the Rebellion?
The Desmond dynasty was annihilated in the aftermath of the rebellions and their estates confiscated.
This gave the English authorities the opportunity to settle the province with colonists from England and Wales, who, it was hoped, would be a bulwark against further rebellions.
In 1584, a commission surveyed Munster, to allocate confiscated lands to English Undertakers, wealthy colonists who "undertook" to import tenants from England to work their new lands.
The Undertakers were also supposed to build new towns and provide for the defense of planted districts from attack.
After the rebellion
As well as the former Geraldine estates (spread through the modern counties Limerick, Cork, Kerry and Tipperary) the survey took in the lands belonging to other families and clans that had supported the rebellions in south-west Cork and Kerry.
However, the settlement here was rather piecemeal because the ruling clan – the MacCarthy Mór line argued that the rebel landowners were their subordinates and therefore the land really belonged to them.
Lands were therefore granted to some Undertakers and then taken away again when native lords like the MacCarthys appealed the dispossession of their dependents.
After the rebellion
Other sectors of the plantation were equally chaotic. Popham, the Attorney General for Ireland, imported 70 tenants from Somerset, only to find that that the land had already been settled by another undertaker and he was obliged to return them home.
Nevertheless, in theory at least, 500,000 acres (2,000 km²) were planted with English colonists.
North Devon Gravel-free and Gravel-tempered (17th)
North Devon Slipware and Sgraffito (17th)
After the rebellion
It was hoped that the settlement would attract in the region of 15,000 colonists, but a report made out in 1589 showed that the undertakers had imported only in the region of 700 English tenants between them.
It has been suggested that each tenant was the head of a household, and that he therefore represents 4-5 other people .
This would put the English population in Munster at nearer 3-4000, but it was still substantially below the projected figure.
Impact of the plantation?
The Munster Plantation was supposed to produce compact defensible settlements, but in fact, the English settlers were spread in pockets across the province, wherever land had been confiscated.
Initially the Undertakers were given detachments of English soldiers to protect them, but these were abolished in the 1590s.
As a result, when war came to Munster in 1598, most of the settlers were chased off their lands without a fight, taking refuge in the province’s walled towns or fled back to England.
When the rebellion was put down in 1601-03, the Plantation was re-constituted by the Governor of Munster, George Carew.
After the rebellion
Re-established following the rebels' defeat in 1601, the plantation grew steadily.
The extraction of timber and iron yielded large profits but the plantation areas also rapidly developed a strong export trade in cattle and sheep.
By 1641 the plantation was securely established with an expanding population that had grown from just over 3,000 in 1592 to an estimated 22,000.
Ironworking
Ironworking was successful in Munster (and elsewhere) as there appears to have been significant amounts of woodland (for fuel).
This also deprived the Irish of bases during war.
Duddon furnace, Furness, Cumbria
Blowing House
Plan
Araglin, co. Waterford
Distribution of surviving sites in south Munster
Hamilton and Montgomery
MacDonnell clan held property in the Glens of Antrim and Scotland, and in the first half of the 16th century this alarmed the Tudor monarchy.
After a series of failed military expeditions, Queen Elizabeth agreed to support an English colonial settlement in the region.
In 1571 Sir Thomas Smith, the Queen’s Principal Secretary of State was given a royal grant in Clandeboye and the Ards Peninsula.
He envisaged a settlement led by the younger sons of English gentlemen who would develop the urban and commercial infrastructure of the Ards and exploit its natural resources of fish and timber, financed through private investment and state sponsorship and led by Smith’s son, Thomas.
He encountered considerable opposition from Sir Brian MacPhelim O’Neill, the Gaelic lord of Clandeboyeand in October 1573, Smith was killed.
Hamilton and Montgomery
In 1573, Walter Devereux, the Earl of Essex, received a grant of land in north east Ireland.
He agreed to invest his own money and he envisaged taking control of an extensive territory from Belfast to Coleraine and establishing himself as Captain General of Ulster.
He recruited 400 adventurers but he spent most of his time in the militarily engaged in military encounters with Gaelic lords.
In 1574 he seized Sir Brian MacPhelim O'Neill, his wife and brother and arranged for their execution in Dublin Castle.
In 1575, he authorised a notorious raid on Rathlin Island by John Norris and Francis Drake.
Shortly afterwards, the Queen relieved him of his command and he died, possibly poisoned, in 1576.
Hamilton and Montgomery
Ayrshire Scots - James Hamilton and Hugh Montgomery - organised a massive plantation from the Lowlands of Scotland to County Antrim and County Down.
From May 1606, it is claimed they introduced over 10,000 Presbyterian Lowland Scots, claimed as the inspiration for James I's Virginia Plantation of 1607.
Antrim and Down were devastated and by the wars of the late 1500s and the owner of the lands, Con O’Neill, had been imprisoned in Carrickfergus Castle by the late Queen Elizabeth and was probably destined for execution.
Montgomery hatched an elaborate plan to both free O’Neill and to gain a Royal pardon for him from the newly-crowned King James I - and Montgomery’s payment was to be half of O’Neill’s lands.
However Hamilton found out and intervened in the negotiations - and won one third of the lands for himself.
Hamilton and Montgomery
Hamilton, from Dunlop in Ayrshire, was an academic and had been a founder of Trinity College in Dublin.
His new territory included the entire River Bann and the area around Coleraine, as well as a major part of County Down which took in Bangor, part of Comber, Killyleagh, Dundonald and some of the Ards Peninsula.
Montgomery was the 6th Laird of Braidstane and had been a mercenary in the wars in Holland.
His new territory included Newtownards, Donaghadee, part of Comber, Greyabbey and a large portion of the Ards Peninsula.
The Flight of the Earls
Nine Years War (1592-1601) effectively ended by the Treaty of Mellifont (1603).
Hugh O’Neill was forced to abandon Gaelic (Brehon law), allow royal judges and sheriffs into Ulster and give up control over other Gaelic chieftans.
From 1603, James I’s officials kept watch on O’Neill.
Fearing arrest he decided to flee and get help from Pope and Spain, in September 1607 with O’Donnell, Earl of Tyrconnell.
Plantation of Ulster
The Earls departure opened an opportunity for a radical extension of plantation policy to be introduced and followed through.
They (and their supporters) were found guilty of treason and their lands were confiscated.
Six counties were planted (Donegal, Coleraine/Derry, Tyrone, Fermanagh, Cavan & Armagh).
Monaghan was left to Gaelic Irish who remained loyal during war.
Their land was divided into estates of 1000, 1500 and 2000 acres.
The owners of the larger estates had to erect a castle and bawn for security and plant 48 able bodied men.
The rent was charged at a rate of 1 penny per acre.
Plantation of Ulster
Planters: no large land grants. Laws strictly enforced to prevent land falling into Gaelic Irish hands.
Land given to Church of Ireland, Trinity College, ‘royal’ schools, and to set up towns. Coleraine (Derry) given to London Guilds.
Undertakers: English or Scottish gentlemen. Estates of 400, 600, or 800 hectares.
Rent €6 per year per 400 hectares to the king.
Had to build either a castle or stone house and a bawn (stone-walled enclosure).
Had to take in English or Scottish tenants only.
Plantation of Ulster
Servitors: civil servants or army officers.
€10 per year per 400 hectares.
But allowed to take Irish tenants, who were willing to pay more rent than English/Scottish tenants.
So servitors earned more from their estates by taking Irish tenants.
Tully Castle
Iron Technology, Climate and Warfare
Basis of Iron Age climate records.
Iron Age in context.
See F. McDermott et al 2001 in the journal Science. Vol. 294. no. 5545, pp. 1328 - 1331
Climate during the Iron Age
Based on this data, temperature gradients during the Iron Age are within reasonable bands compared to today.
There is no evidence to suggests a ‘cold snap’ or other catastrophic event, despite a relatively narrow tree ring event at 207 BC and volcanic acid layers in ice cores at 210+/-30 BC. Tree rings and layers in the ice core provide data that is an approximate of the climate at that time.
Comparison of two pollen sequences from the midlands (Corlea, Longford; Derryville, Tipperary).
Does this suggest a climatic problem around 207 BC?
Derryville: Pollen Diagram
Climate information and archaeological data
Grey bands equate to dry episodes.
Graphs indicate growth of bog oaks (line) and lake oaks (black), with peaks reflecting drier conditions.
Turney et al. 2006 Journal of Archaeological Science Vol 33, 34-38
Iron Age Ireland
Iron Technology
Chemical symbol for iron is Fe
Naturally occuring mostly as oxides or carbonates:
Iron ore
Hematite
Magnetite
Naturally occurs in many geological strata, chalk, lakes, bogs:
Earth's crust is 5% iron (comapre 50 parts per million of copper and only 3 ppm tin)
Iron ore more plentiful on the surface than copper
Main drawback – more difficult to process, requiring higher temperatures.
Iron Ores: even distribution
Iron Technology
The production process produces a bloom containing iron, which is forged and hammered so that it is purged of as much waste material as possible, which congeals to form lumps of metallic rock known as slag (top left).
The bloom is then cleaned and by heating and quenching it it can be hammered out into ingots (bottom right) or shaped to form objects.
What traces would this leave?
Objects?
Furnaces?
Slag?
Other?
Ore Preparation
Crushing Ore: Bedrock Mortars
Bullauns?
Heating Ore: Charcoal
Iron technology: adding Oxygen
Producing iron ore requires a furnace (powered by charcoal) to achieve the required temperatures.
Basically, when you have crushed the ore, you then heat it to 1538°C at which point iron melts.
Oxygen
Smelting Ore: Furnaces
Shaft Furnaces
Furnaces do leave some traces that can be recovered during excavation.
Early Iron working in Ireland
Smithing hearth at Rossan 6, dated to 820-780 BC
Bloom smithing/iron working hearth at Griffinstown 3, dated to 420-360 BC
Bowl furnace at Johnstown 3, Meath, dated to 420-360 BC
Bowl furnace at Kinnegad 2, dated to 400-340 BC
Smithing hearth at Rossan 6, dated to 370-50 BC
Bowl furnace at Hardwood 3, dated 380-60 BC
More information on these sites at www.nra.ie/Archaeology/
Primary Smithing
Secondary Smithing
Smelting and Smithing Slags
Hammerscale
Hartshill in England produced evidence suggesting the presence of iron working as early as the 10th BC.
It was in the form of tiny fragments of hammerscale, some less than a millimetre in size (shown in the image on the right), rather than furnaces or slag.
Hartshill, West Berkshire, England
Iron Age Iron Working in Ireland
Sites with clear evidence of Iron Age iron working are relatively rare in Ireland although some examples, such as Rath na Riogh, at Tara, are known.
Blacksmiths
The complex and dangerous process of transforming “stone” to metal provides a special position for blacksmiths in many societies
There may be ceremonies and rituals associated with the process
Blacksmiths are often seen as figures with supernatural powers
Early Warriors
Hochdorf
La Frondelle: the goddess Epona
Chariots
Defended Hilltop sites – Hillforts
Most perceptions of Celtic warfare are driven by Classical accounts, many of which are considerably later than the earliest sites.
Murus Gallicus, according to Caesar
Heuneburg
Pfostenschlitzmauer
Manching
Celtic Migrations: timeline
Allia and Rome
Celts in War
Pergamon
The Romans faced by the Celts
One days march; 15-20 miles. Overrall length of column 22.5 miles
Average speed; 3 miles per hour
Total army makeup- based on a six legion army;
Legionary troops;30,000
Ancillary troops;3,500
Gallic Cavalry Wing;4,000
Roman cavalry;720
Servants;6,500
Horses;4,720
Total mules;10,000
The Romans faced by the Celts
Legion Staff- ancillary troops, clerks, technicians, specialists, reserve tentage, cavalry equipment, field hospital, medical staff, veterinary staff, engineering stores, workshops.
Caesar maintained that at any one time there were between 300-500 sick
Food: Daily requirement 3lbs per day per man. Each man carried 10 days ration
Artillery included: siege engines, Ballistae, Caterpults and Onagers
Caesar against the Helvetii (58 BC)
Celeritas and Clemencia (Caesar)
“ The battle ended, that he might be able to come up with the remaining forces, he procures a bridge to be made across the Saone. The Helvetii, confused by his sudden arrival, when they had found that he had effected in one day what they themselves had difficulty in accomplishing in twenty….send ambassadors to him.”
“ He ordered the Helvetii to return to their territories from which they had come and as there was nothing at home whereby they might support their hunger, he commanded the Allobroges to let them have a plentiful supply of corn.”
Keeping a Tally
“The sum of all amounted to …368,000.When the census of those who returned home was taken, as Caesar commanded the number was found to be 110,000.” Book 1 (Bello Gallico)
“ On the basis of Caesar’s report, the Senate granted him a Supplicatio of fifteen days.. The Senate was paying him respect for the Conquest of the whole of Gaul. At the same time, it was indirectly confirming his command and the legitimacy of his wars. It was honouring him in such a way that the transgression of 59 were bound to pale. Its decision, thus represented a quite extraordinary success for Caesar, however little it meant in material terms”. C Meier
Caesar against the Venetii
The Roman naval tactics consisted mainly in either propelling a vessel with great force against a rival and crushing the side, or in catching hold of the hostile craft with hooks, pulling alongside, springing over on it, and settling the conflict with a hand-to-hand fight. In the sea-fight with the Veneti, who had only sailing vessels, the Roman sailors crippled the enemy's ships by cutting down the sail-yards
Delegation, Innovation and Recognition
“ One thing provided by our men was of great service..sharp hooks inserted into and fastened upon poles….When the ropes were caught by them and pulled…the yards necessarily fell down, so that all hope of the Gallic vessels of the Gallic vessels depending on their sails was taken from them”
“The rest of the contest depended on courage; in which our men decidedly had the advantage; and the more so, because the whole action was carried on in the sight of Caesar and the entire army; so that no act, a little more valiant than ordinary, could pass unobserved”.
Defensive Works at Bourges
The Battle at Gergovia
A Rare Defeat?
In 52 BC Gergovia was the stronghold of Vercingetorix. It is famous for being the only place where Julius Caesar was defeated in the Gaulish wars. After conquering Avaricum, Caesar took six legions onward to Gergovia where he attempted a siege. He was outnumbered when the Aedui, formerly the Romans' allies, surprised Caesar by joining with Vercingetorix. As Caesar's army marched towards the great Arverni hillfort of Gergovie, Vercingetorix was setting out with his own army on the other side of the river Allier, breaking every bridge along the way to be sure the Romans could not cross over. Caesar, however, hid two legions in the woods. After Vercingetorix moved on, they rebuilt one of the bridges and went on to attempt the siege of Gergovia. The assault failed. Over 700 soldiers and 40 centurions were lost in the battle before Caesar drew back. Encouraged by this victory, the Gauls persisted in their revolt until their final defeat at Alesia.
The Battle of Alesia
Intelligence and leadership.
“ As the action was carried on in sight of all, neither a brave nor cowardly act could be concealed; both the desire of praise and the fear of ignominy, urged on each party to valor….Caesar sends at first young Brutus and afterwards Caius Fabius, his liutenant…….His arrival being known from the colour of his robe….the enemy joined battle.”
“Caesar on learning these proceedings from the deserters and captives, adopted the following system of fortification”.
Archaeological evidence at Alesia
Orange, Vaucluse
Caesar’s Siege Works at Alesia
Dun Aonghusa, Inis Mór, Aran Islands
Iron Age in context.
See F. McDermott et al 2001 in the journal Science. Vol. 294. no. 5545, pp. 1328 - 1331
Climate during the Iron Age
Based on this data, temperature gradients during the Iron Age are within reasonable bands compared to today.
There is no evidence to suggests a ‘cold snap’ or other catastrophic event, despite a relatively narrow tree ring event at 207 BC and volcanic acid layers in ice cores at 210+/-30 BC. Tree rings and layers in the ice core provide data that is an approximate of the climate at that time.
Comparison of two pollen sequences from the midlands (Corlea, Longford; Derryville, Tipperary).
Does this suggest a climatic problem around 207 BC?
Derryville: Pollen Diagram
Climate information and archaeological data
Grey bands equate to dry episodes.
Graphs indicate growth of bog oaks (line) and lake oaks (black), with peaks reflecting drier conditions.
Turney et al. 2006 Journal of Archaeological Science Vol 33, 34-38
Iron Age Ireland
Iron Technology
Chemical symbol for iron is Fe
Naturally occuring mostly as oxides or carbonates:
Iron ore
Hematite
Magnetite
Naturally occurs in many geological strata, chalk, lakes, bogs:
Earth's crust is 5% iron (comapre 50 parts per million of copper and only 3 ppm tin)
Iron ore more plentiful on the surface than copper
Main drawback – more difficult to process, requiring higher temperatures.
Iron Ores: even distribution
Iron Technology
The production process produces a bloom containing iron, which is forged and hammered so that it is purged of as much waste material as possible, which congeals to form lumps of metallic rock known as slag (top left).
The bloom is then cleaned and by heating and quenching it it can be hammered out into ingots (bottom right) or shaped to form objects.
What traces would this leave?
Objects?
Furnaces?
Slag?
Other?
Ore Preparation
Crushing Ore: Bedrock Mortars
Bullauns?
Heating Ore: Charcoal
Iron technology: adding Oxygen
Producing iron ore requires a furnace (powered by charcoal) to achieve the required temperatures.
Basically, when you have crushed the ore, you then heat it to 1538°C at which point iron melts.
Oxygen
Smelting Ore: Furnaces
Shaft Furnaces
Furnaces do leave some traces that can be recovered during excavation.
Early Iron working in Ireland
Smithing hearth at Rossan 6, dated to 820-780 BC
Bloom smithing/iron working hearth at Griffinstown 3, dated to 420-360 BC
Bowl furnace at Johnstown 3, Meath, dated to 420-360 BC
Bowl furnace at Kinnegad 2, dated to 400-340 BC
Smithing hearth at Rossan 6, dated to 370-50 BC
Bowl furnace at Hardwood 3, dated 380-60 BC
More information on these sites at www.nra.ie/Archaeology/
Primary Smithing
Secondary Smithing
Smelting and Smithing Slags
Hammerscale
Hartshill in England produced evidence suggesting the presence of iron working as early as the 10th BC.
It was in the form of tiny fragments of hammerscale, some less than a millimetre in size (shown in the image on the right), rather than furnaces or slag.
Hartshill, West Berkshire, England
Iron Age Iron Working in Ireland
Sites with clear evidence of Iron Age iron working are relatively rare in Ireland although some examples, such as Rath na Riogh, at Tara, are known.
Blacksmiths
The complex and dangerous process of transforming “stone” to metal provides a special position for blacksmiths in many societies
There may be ceremonies and rituals associated with the process
Blacksmiths are often seen as figures with supernatural powers
Early Warriors
Hochdorf
La Frondelle: the goddess Epona
Chariots
Defended Hilltop sites – Hillforts
Most perceptions of Celtic warfare are driven by Classical accounts, many of which are considerably later than the earliest sites.
Murus Gallicus, according to Caesar
Heuneburg
Pfostenschlitzmauer
Manching
Celtic Migrations: timeline
Allia and Rome
Celts in War
Pergamon
The Romans faced by the Celts
One days march; 15-20 miles. Overrall length of column 22.5 miles
Average speed; 3 miles per hour
Total army makeup- based on a six legion army;
Legionary troops;30,000
Ancillary troops;3,500
Gallic Cavalry Wing;4,000
Roman cavalry;720
Servants;6,500
Horses;4,720
Total mules;10,000
The Romans faced by the Celts
Legion Staff- ancillary troops, clerks, technicians, specialists, reserve tentage, cavalry equipment, field hospital, medical staff, veterinary staff, engineering stores, workshops.
Caesar maintained that at any one time there were between 300-500 sick
Food: Daily requirement 3lbs per day per man. Each man carried 10 days ration
Artillery included: siege engines, Ballistae, Caterpults and Onagers
Caesar against the Helvetii (58 BC)
Celeritas and Clemencia (Caesar)
“ The battle ended, that he might be able to come up with the remaining forces, he procures a bridge to be made across the Saone. The Helvetii, confused by his sudden arrival, when they had found that he had effected in one day what they themselves had difficulty in accomplishing in twenty….send ambassadors to him.”
“ He ordered the Helvetii to return to their territories from which they had come and as there was nothing at home whereby they might support their hunger, he commanded the Allobroges to let them have a plentiful supply of corn.”
Keeping a Tally
“The sum of all amounted to …368,000.When the census of those who returned home was taken, as Caesar commanded the number was found to be 110,000.” Book 1 (Bello Gallico)
“ On the basis of Caesar’s report, the Senate granted him a Supplicatio of fifteen days.. The Senate was paying him respect for the Conquest of the whole of Gaul. At the same time, it was indirectly confirming his command and the legitimacy of his wars. It was honouring him in such a way that the transgression of 59 were bound to pale. Its decision, thus represented a quite extraordinary success for Caesar, however little it meant in material terms”. C Meier
Caesar against the Venetii
The Roman naval tactics consisted mainly in either propelling a vessel with great force against a rival and crushing the side, or in catching hold of the hostile craft with hooks, pulling alongside, springing over on it, and settling the conflict with a hand-to-hand fight. In the sea-fight with the Veneti, who had only sailing vessels, the Roman sailors crippled the enemy's ships by cutting down the sail-yards
Delegation, Innovation and Recognition
“ One thing provided by our men was of great service..sharp hooks inserted into and fastened upon poles….When the ropes were caught by them and pulled…the yards necessarily fell down, so that all hope of the Gallic vessels of the Gallic vessels depending on their sails was taken from them”
“The rest of the contest depended on courage; in which our men decidedly had the advantage; and the more so, because the whole action was carried on in the sight of Caesar and the entire army; so that no act, a little more valiant than ordinary, could pass unobserved”.
Defensive Works at Bourges
The Battle at Gergovia
A Rare Defeat?
In 52 BC Gergovia was the stronghold of Vercingetorix. It is famous for being the only place where Julius Caesar was defeated in the Gaulish wars. After conquering Avaricum, Caesar took six legions onward to Gergovia where he attempted a siege. He was outnumbered when the Aedui, formerly the Romans' allies, surprised Caesar by joining with Vercingetorix. As Caesar's army marched towards the great Arverni hillfort of Gergovie, Vercingetorix was setting out with his own army on the other side of the river Allier, breaking every bridge along the way to be sure the Romans could not cross over. Caesar, however, hid two legions in the woods. After Vercingetorix moved on, they rebuilt one of the bridges and went on to attempt the siege of Gergovia. The assault failed. Over 700 soldiers and 40 centurions were lost in the battle before Caesar drew back. Encouraged by this victory, the Gauls persisted in their revolt until their final defeat at Alesia.
The Battle of Alesia
Intelligence and leadership.
“ As the action was carried on in sight of all, neither a brave nor cowardly act could be concealed; both the desire of praise and the fear of ignominy, urged on each party to valor….Caesar sends at first young Brutus and afterwards Caius Fabius, his liutenant…….His arrival being known from the colour of his robe….the enemy joined battle.”
“Caesar on learning these proceedings from the deserters and captives, adopted the following system of fortification”.
Archaeological evidence at Alesia
Orange, Vaucluse
Caesar’s Siege Works at Alesia
Dun Aonghusa, Inis Mór, Aran Islands
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)