The Rise and Fall of Empires
This course plots Ireland’s long term relationship with Europe and the Atlantic World from AD 800 onwards.
In reality, it explores Ireland’s engagement with the world of the Viking, then the Normans and finally the English.
The Rise and Fall of Empires
In many we will chart the rise and fall of the power centres associated with these groups.
The Rise and Fall of Empires
But ...
As a morality lesson, it is worth considering the real backdrop to these stories, and the first lesson ...
Why did the Roman Empire collapse?
An essay in ten parts...
For years, the well-disciplined Roman army held the barbarians of Germany in check.
However, when the Roman soldiers were withdrawn from the Rhine-Danube frontier in the third century A.D. to fight in civil wars in Italy, the Roman border was left open to attack.
Gradually Germanic hunters and herders from northern and central Europe began to raid and take over Roman lands in Greece and Gaul.
Barbarian Invasions
In A.D. 476 the Germanic general Odovacar overthrew the last of the Roman emperors and made himself ruler of all Italy.
From then on, the western part of the Empire was ruled by Germanic tribal chiefs.
Roads and bridges were left in disrepair and many fields were left untilled.
Pirates and bandits made travel unsafe. Cities declined and trade and business began to disappear.
Decline in Morals and Values
The final years of the Empire were marked by a decline in morals and values, and some historians believe that this contributed to the decline of the Empire.
Crimes of violence made the streets of the Empire's larger cities very unsafe.
According to Roman historians there were 32,000 prostitutes in Rome during the reign of Trajan.
Emperors like Nero and Caligula became infamous for wasting money on lavish parties, where guests ate and drank until they became ill.
Decline in Morals and Values
Most important, however, was the growth of the Roman passion for cruelty. The most popular amusement was watching the gladiatorial combats in the Colosseum. These were attended by the poor, the rich, and frequently the emperor himself. As gladiators fought, vicious cries and curses were heard from the audience. One contest after another was staged in the course of a single day. Should the ground of the arena become too soaked with blood, it was covered over with a fresh layer of sand, and the revolting performances went on.
Environmental and Public Health Problems
Some historians believe that the fall of the Roman Empire was due in part to environmental and public health problems.
They claim the leaders of Rome were killed off by consuming excessive amounts of lead.
Environmental and Public Health Problems
They argue that since only the wealthy could afford to have lead pipes bring water into their homes and to cook with lead utensils, their death rate was increased considerably.
This theory, however, is challenged by those who point out the fact that the eastern part of the Empire survived long after the decline of the Western portion.
Rise in Christianity
Some historians believe that Christianity produced dramatic changes in Roman society at the very time when pressure from the barbarians was increasing.
They argue that Christianity made its followers into pacifists (those who oppose war), thus making it more difficult to defend Roman lands from barbarian attacks.
Rise in Christianity
They also suggest that the Church attracted many qualified leaders whose talents were needed to deal with the problems of the Empire.
Finally, these historians theorize that money that would have been used to maintain the Empire, instead, was used to build churches and monasteries.
Unemployment
During the latter years of the Empire farming was done on large estates that were owned by wealthy men who used slave labor.
A farmer who had to pay workmen could not produce goods as cheaply as a slave-owner could. Therefore, slave-owners could sell their crops for lower prices.
As a result, many fanners could not compete with these low prices and lost or sold their farms.
Unemployment
Thousands of these men filled the cities of the Empire, where there were not enough jobs to accommodate them.
At one time, the emperor was importing grain to feed more than 100,000 unemployed people in Rome alone.
Some historians believe that this contributed to the collapse of the Empire.
Urban Decay
Wealthy Romans lived in a domus, or house, with marble walls, floors with intricate colored tiles, and windows made of small panes of glass.
Most Romans, however, were not rich.
They lived in small, smelly rooms in apartment houses with six or more stories called an island (insula).
Each insula covered an entire urban block.
At one time there were 44,000 insulae within the city walls of Rome.
Urban Decay
First-floor apartments were not occupied by the poor
since the rent was too dear (ten times the top floor).
The higher a family had to climb, the cheaper the rent became, the upper apartments that the poor rented were hot, dirty, crowded, and dangerous.
Anyone who could not pay the rent was forced to move out and live on the crime-infested streets.
Because of this, cities began to decay.
Excessive Military Spending
Maintaining an army to defend the borders of the Empire from barbarian attacks was a constant drain on the government.
Military spending left few resources for other vital activities, such as providing public housing and maintaining the quality of public roads.
In the latter years of the Empire, frustrated Romans lost their desire to defend the Empire.
Excessive Military Spending
Thus, the government found it necessary to rely increasingly on hired soldiers recruited from the unemployed city mobs or foreign countries.
Such an army was not only unreliable, but very expensive.
Thus, the emperors were forced to raise taxes frequently-the majority of which were paid by businessmen and farmers, which hurt the economy.
Inferior Technology
During the last 400 years of the Empire, the scientific achievements of the Romans were limited almost entirely to engineering and the organization of public services.
They built marvelous roads, bridges and aqueducts.
They established the first system of medicine for the benefit of the poor.
Inferior Technology
But since the Romans relied so much on human and animal labor, they failed to invent many new machines or find new technology to produce goods more efficiently.
As a result of inferior production techniques, the Romans were unable to provide important goods for their growing population.
Inflation
The Roman economy suffered from inflation beginning after the reign of Marcus Aurelius.
Once the Romans stopped conquering new lands, the flow of gold into the Roman economy decreased.
Yet much gold was being spent by the Romans to pay
for luxury items.
This meant that there was less gold to use in coins. As the amount of gold used in coins decreased, the coins became less valuable.
Inflation
To make up for this loss in value, merchants raised the prices on the goods they sold.
Many people stopped using coins and began to barter (trading goods for goods, rather than using money) to get what they needed.
Eventually, salaries had to be paid in food and clothing, and taxes were collected in fruits and vegetables.
Political Corruption
One of Rome's most serious problems was the difficulty of choosing new emperors as the Romans never created an effective system to determine how new emperors would be selected.
For this reason, the choice of a new emperor was always open to debate between the Senate, the Praetorian Guard (the emperor's private army), and the army.
Gradually the Praetorian Guard gained complete authority to choose the new emperor.
Political Corruption
In return, the new emperor handsomely rewarded the Guard for its support. This system worked fairly well for a time.
Beginning in A.D. 186, however, when the army strangled the new emperor, the practice began of selling the throne to the highest bidder.
During the next 100 years, Rome had 37 different emperors - 25 of whom were removed from office by assassination.
Angles, Saxons, Normans ...
Angles, Saxons, Normans …
Angles and Saxons: Britain from Rome to the Normans
Just prior to Visigoth sack of Rome in 410, Roman troops were withdrawn from England (408)
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes invade British Isles
Age of many kings, but no king of England
Sometimes a given king would have great power over other kingdoms—such as Aethelberht, King of Kent.
Seven major Kingdoms emerge (often referred to as the Heptarchy)
Saxons, Angles, and Jutes
Non-Roman Barbarians – Saxons, Angles, and Jutes – depicted invading Britain by sea in the fifth century in the Passion of St Edmund
Gildas, De Excidio Britanniae
Monk writing in the 6th century, describing the collapse of Roman power and the arrival of mercenaries in the 5th century
Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica
A history of 8th-century Anglo-Saxon kingdoms:
‘Those who came over were of three of the more powerful peoples of Germany: the Saxons, the Angles and the Jutes’
Jutes, Angles, Saxons and Frisians arrive in the fifth century
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms emerge in the seventh century
Undley Bracteate
5th century
From Undley Common, Suffolk
Earliest known inscription in Anglo-Frisian ‘Futhorc’ (as opposed to ‘Futhark’)
‘g͡æg͡og͡æ – mægæ medu’
Image is Contantine the Great with Romulus and Remus suckled by the wolf.
Runes
Anglo-Saxon runes (left) and Germanic ‘Elder’ runes (above) and ‘Younger’ runes (below).
These were generally replaced on Christianisation.
Angles, Saxons, Jutes etc...
Angles came from Angeln (according to Bede their whole tribe came)
Saxons from Niedersachsen
Jutes from Jutland
Also smaller groups of:
Frisians (Fresham, Freston, Friston)
Flemings (Flemby, Flempton)
Swabians (Swaffham)
Franks (Frankton, Frankley)
Angles, Saxons, Jutes etc...
These groups may be coeval with the Ingvaeones, as described in Tacitus's Germania, (AD98), a West Germanic cultural group living in the Jutland, Holstein, Frisia and the Danish islands.
The postulated common group of closely related dialects of the Ingvaeones is called Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic.
Major issues
Origins of ‘the English’: debate and discussion – several theories tend to dominate.
Was there massive invasion & migration?
Or, a takeover by small powerful groups?
Or, a slow transformation as people abandon ‘Roman’ ways, and adopt Anglo-Saxon customs?
The building shown below is a typical Anglo-Saxon ‘grubenhaus’
Contact and Migration
Finds of silver sceattas of the porcupine-standard series attributed to mints in Frisia
The sceats here are 7th century (right and below) and 8th century (below right)
Continuity ...
But, also much archaeological evidence for continuity of British ways such as building styles
Cowdery’s Down, Hants
Highdown, Sussex
Highdown in use as a cemetery by [pagan] Saxons, including a mixture of inhumations and cremations placed in urns
At the same time a Romano-British villa at nearby Northbrook, less than a mile away, was still in use by native Christians.
Anglo-Saxon architecture
Earliest surviving architecture is 7th century.
In the north of England, churches are narrow with square ended chancels.
In the south, churches had apsidal ends separated from the nave by a triple arch opening, for example at Reculver.
Anglo-Saxon architecture
Apsidal church from Brixworth (Northamptonshire)
Arch similar to Reculver at entrance to the apsidal end
Anglo-Saxon architecture
The most complete example of the northern type of church is at Escomb (Durham).
Old Minster, Winchester
Constructed in 648 for King Cenwalh of Wessex and Saint Birinus, diocesan cathedral by 660.
Saint Swithun buried outside it in 862.
New Minster built next to it (901), Saint Æthelwold of Winchester followed by his successor, Saint Alphege, almost completely rebuilt the minster on a vast scale during their monastic reforms of the 970s.
Old Minster demolished in 1093.
ANGLO-SAXON HEPTARCHY
Major kingdoms:
Northumbria
Mercia
East Anglia
Essex
Kent
Wessex
Sussex
Minor kingdoms:
Hwicce
Magonsaete
Kingdom of Lindsey
Middle Anglia
ANGLO-SAXON HEPTARCHY
Major kingdoms:
Northumbria
Mercia
East Anglia
Essex
Kent
Wessex
Sussex
Minor kingdoms:
Hwicce
Magonsaete
Kingdom of Lindsey
Middle Anglia
Laws of Aethelberht
Laws of Aethelberht
Sutton Hoo
Two Anglo-Saxon cemeteries of the 6th century and early 7th century, one of which contained an undisturbed ship burial.
Use of the site culminated at a time when the ruler (Raedwald) of East Anglia held senior power among the English people, and played a dynamic (if ambiguous) part in the establishment of Christian rulership in England.
The ship-burial probably dates from the early 7th century and was excavated in 1939.
Sutton Hoo
Anglo-Saxon Art: Fuller Brooch
Late 9th century brooch, found in Normandy.
11.4 cm disc of hammered sheet silver inlaid with black niello.
The centre is decorated with the five senses.
In the middle is Sight
Taste (top left)
Smell (top right)
Touch (bottom right)
Hearing (bottom left)
The outer border consists of humans, bird, animal and plant motifs.
Unusually it does not represent divinity.
Anglo-Saxon Art: Manuscripts
Illuminated Anglo-Saxon manuscripts survive, such as the Benedictional of St. Æthelwold and Leofric Missal drawing on Hiberno-Saxon art, and, Carolingian and Byzantine art for style and iconography.
Combines northern ornamental traditions with Mediterranean figural traditions.
Anglo-Saxon Art: Manuscripts
Dates between 963 and 984. Contains a Latin inscription which describes how it was made:
A bishop, the great Æthelwold, whom the Lord had made patron of Winchester, ordered a certain monk subject to him to write the present book . . . He commanded also to be made in this book many frames well adorned and filled with various figures decorated with many beautiful colours and with gold. This book the Boanerges aforesaid caused to be indicted for himself . . . Let all who look upon this book pray always that after the term of the flesh I may abide in heaven Û Godeman the scribe, as a suppliant, earnestly asks this…
West Stow
Hamlet of West Stow, Suffolk
Occupied during the 5th–7th centuries
5 acres excavated – 1960s & 1970s
7 larger house = family halls? c.12m long; hearth; S. side door
60 Sunken-featured buildings (grubenhauser)
West Stow: finds
Yeavering, Northumbria
Anglo-Saxon villa and royal palace – earliest known (Bede: Ad Gefrin)
Identified 1949 aerial photography
Excavated 1950s & 1960s by Brian Hope Taylor
Great enclosure: circular entrance works – a corral for animals?
Archaeological evidence for fire – all buildings burnt to the ground (in AD633: King Edwin killed; massacres in Northumbria).
Yeavering, Northumbria
Bronze Age burial mound with large upright pole: Focus for pagan Anglo-Saxon burials? Building aid?
The Great Hall: 7th century. Massive timbers, communal centre: Feasting, music, singing, royal ceremonies
Area ruled but not peopled by Anglo-Saxons?
Theatre: cuneus
Unique in A-S England
Triangular stepped structure w/ stage
Performance, assembly?
Alfred the Great (871-899)
King of Wessex who wielded power over all of so-called ‘Heptarchy’ (see language map)
Defeats newest arrivals (Danes)
Issued a Code of Laws for all the realm
Began the English Navy
Commissioned the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (often taken as a measure of the stability of his reign)
From Alfred to William, 899-1066
Alfred’s successors were not great rulers—Ethelred the Redeless (stupid), for example—and the Vikings under King Cnut actually assumed control of the realm.
Cnut’s successor had no heirs and created a question of who would become king
3 candidates: Harold Hardrada, Harold Godwinson of Wessex, William, Duke of Normandy
William wins Battle of Hastings, October 1066
Feudalism
Social contract between ‘lords’ and ‘vassals’
Theoretically it is reciprocal (see diagram)
In practise in had centralising tendencies
Became the dominant political system in Europe
Becomes synonymous with the Normans
What did it replace??
Viking Towns
York, Birka, Hedeby, Dublin
Based on trade
Chattels not real estate
Dublin
1000 AD
Dublin, 1170
William I—King of England (1066-1087)
Introduced Norman Feudalism into England—emphasized power of King (Salisbury Oath)
Domesday Survey
Much central authority compared to earlier governmental arrangements in England
Great Council created out of Witan
Curia Regis established
But who were these ‘Normans’??
Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1073-1088
Willliam and Harold
Battle
William’s Feast
Normans?
Normandy is approximately the same region as the old church province of Rouen
Was sometimes called Brittania Nova and western Flanders.
No natural frontiers and was previously merely an administrative unit.
Viking settlers begun arriving in the 880s, divided between a small colony in Upper (or eastern) Normandy and a larger one in Lower (or western) Normandy.
Rollo
In 911 AD Charles III of France gave Normandy to the Viking leader Rollo who became a Christian. Vikings helped adopt the French language and organized a strong state in Normandy.
Rollo’s grave, Rouen
Rollo
Passed title to his son in 927 before his death.
Normandy
From the 10th century the Norse settled and adopted the language and culture of the French majority.
After a generation or two, the Normans were generally indistinguishable from their French neighbours.
In Normandy, they adopted the growing feudal doctrines of the rest of northern France.
The old French aristocracy could trace their families back to Carolingian times.
The Normans knights rended to remain poor and land-hungry.
By 1066, Normandy had been exporting fighting horsemen for more than a generation.
Prior to 1066 and then crusades knighthood before the time of the Crusades held little social status.
Mottes
Illustrated on the Bayeux Tapestry
Mottes
Illustrated on the Bayeux Tapestry
Mottes
Illustrated on the Bayeux Tapestry
Mottes
Bayeux Tapestry showing the motte at Hastings being built.
Architecture and the early Normans
There was a resurgence in the development of distinct architectural styles under Charlemagne.
Palace Chapel of Charlemagne, Aachen, 792-805
Monasteries
Designs for the monasteries had already been drawn up under order of Charlemagne
Developed a role as cultural/learning centers
St. Gall
Abbey at Cluny, begun 910
French monastery, Benedictine monks
Largest, most powerful monastery, 10th-12th c.
Early Christian vs. Romanesque
This is the difference in effect of a barrel vault (on the right) and the pre-existing style of roof.
Cluny
Three main phases from 910 onwards (coinciding with the emerging Norman state).
The greatest monastic Romanesque church, Cluny III (1088-1121), did not survive the French Revolution but has been reconstructed in drawings
Double-aisled church almost 137 m long, with 15 small chapels in transepts and ambulatory
Its design influenced Romanesque and Gothic churches in Burgundy and beyond, often coinciding with the spread of liturgical practices under Norman influence
Cluny III
3rd Abbey Church at Cluny
Largest church in the Christian world
Vertical emphasis
3rd Abbey Church at Cluny, 1049
Largest church in the Christian world
Like Roman basilica but more elaborate
Established ‘Romanesque’ style.
3rd Abbey Church at Cluny, 1049
Vertical emphasis was possible as the churches had very thick walls
The vault was constructed as a series of arches with the wight carried by the large pillars.
St. Sernin, c. 1080
France led the way in the development of Romanesque.
Typical Romanesque Church Plans
St. Etienne, c. 1067-1135
Romanesque
The term “Romanesque” itself was first used in the 19th century. The word Romanesque originally meant "in the Roman manner.“
Use of the Roman round arch, adoption of the major forms of antique Roman vaulting (contained, strong, weighty and somber style)
Most Romanesque churches retained the basic plan of the Early Christian basilica: a long, three-aisled nave intercepted by a transept and terminating in a semicircular apse crowned by a conch, or half-dome
European movement in architecture (10-12th centuries), especially in Italy, France, England and Germany
St. Etienne, Romanesque Facade
Plain
Divided into three sections
Squat
Massive
Tower of London, c. 1078-1097
Most famous Romanesque building in Britain?
Tower of London, c. 1078-1097
The interior features all shown Romanesque influence:
Round-headed windows
Round thick pillars
Barrel-vault
St. Etienne, Romanesque Facade
Plain
Divided into three sections
Squat
Massive
Tower of London, c. 1078-1097
Sculpture as Church Decoration
La Madeleine, Vezelay, France
c. 1120-1132
Tympanum
Narthex
Manuscript paintings as inspiration for sculpture
La Madeleine, capitals
Romanesque Painting-Illuminated Manuscripts
Angles and Saxons: Britain from Rome to the Normans
Just prior to Visigoth sack of Rome in 410, Roman troops were withdrawn from England (408)
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes invade British Isles
Age of many kings, but no king of England
Sometimes a given king would have great power over other kingdoms—such as Aethelberht, King of Kent.
Seven major Kingdoms emerge (often referred to as the Heptarchy)
Saxons, Angles, and Jutes
Non-Roman Barbarians – Saxons, Angles, and Jutes – depicted invading Britain by sea in the fifth century in the Passion of St Edmund
Gildas, De Excidio Britanniae
Monk writing in the 6th century, describing the collapse of Roman power and the arrival of mercenaries in the 5th century
Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica
A history of 8th-century Anglo-Saxon kingdoms:
‘Those who came over were of three of the more powerful peoples of Germany: the Saxons, the Angles and the Jutes’
Jutes, Angles, Saxons and Frisians arrive in the fifth century
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms emerge in the seventh century
Undley Bracteate
5th century
From Undley Common, Suffolk
Earliest known inscription in Anglo-Frisian ‘Futhorc’ (as opposed to ‘Futhark’)
‘g͡æg͡og͡æ – mægæ medu’
Image is Contantine the Great with Romulus and Remus suckled by the wolf.
Runes
Anglo-Saxon runes (left) and Germanic ‘Elder’ runes (above) and ‘Younger’ runes (below).
These were generally replaced on Christianisation.
Angles, Saxons, Jutes etc...
Angles came from Angeln (according to Bede their whole tribe came)
Saxons from Niedersachsen
Jutes from Jutland
Also smaller groups of:
Frisians (Fresham, Freston, Friston)
Flemings (Flemby, Flempton)
Swabians (Swaffham)
Franks (Frankton, Frankley)
Angles, Saxons, Jutes etc...
These groups may be coeval with the Ingvaeones, as described in Tacitus's Germania, (AD98), a West Germanic cultural group living in the Jutland, Holstein, Frisia and the Danish islands.
The postulated common group of closely related dialects of the Ingvaeones is called Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic.
Major issues
Origins of ‘the English’: debate and discussion – several theories tend to dominate.
Was there massive invasion & migration?
Or, a takeover by small powerful groups?
Or, a slow transformation as people abandon ‘Roman’ ways, and adopt Anglo-Saxon customs?
The building shown below is a typical Anglo-Saxon ‘grubenhaus’
Contact and Migration
Finds of silver sceattas of the porcupine-standard series attributed to mints in Frisia
The sceats here are 7th century (right and below) and 8th century (below right)
Continuity ...
But, also much archaeological evidence for continuity of British ways such as building styles
Cowdery’s Down, Hants
Highdown, Sussex
Highdown in use as a cemetery by [pagan] Saxons, including a mixture of inhumations and cremations placed in urns
At the same time a Romano-British villa at nearby Northbrook, less than a mile away, was still in use by native Christians.
Anglo-Saxon architecture
Earliest surviving architecture is 7th century.
In the north of England, churches are narrow with square ended chancels.
In the south, churches had apsidal ends separated from the nave by a triple arch opening, for example at Reculver.
Anglo-Saxon architecture
Apsidal church from Brixworth (Northamptonshire)
Arch similar to Reculver at entrance to the apsidal end
Anglo-Saxon architecture
The most complete example of the northern type of church is at Escomb (Durham).
Old Minster, Winchester
Constructed in 648 for King Cenwalh of Wessex and Saint Birinus, diocesan cathedral by 660.
Saint Swithun buried outside it in 862.
New Minster built next to it (901), Saint Æthelwold of Winchester followed by his successor, Saint Alphege, almost completely rebuilt the minster on a vast scale during their monastic reforms of the 970s.
Old Minster demolished in 1093.
ANGLO-SAXON HEPTARCHY
Major kingdoms:
Northumbria
Mercia
East Anglia
Essex
Kent
Wessex
Sussex
Minor kingdoms:
Hwicce
Magonsaete
Kingdom of Lindsey
Middle Anglia
ANGLO-SAXON HEPTARCHY
Major kingdoms:
Northumbria
Mercia
East Anglia
Essex
Kent
Wessex
Sussex
Minor kingdoms:
Hwicce
Magonsaete
Kingdom of Lindsey
Middle Anglia
Laws of Aethelberht
Laws of Aethelberht
Sutton Hoo
Two Anglo-Saxon cemeteries of the 6th century and early 7th century, one of which contained an undisturbed ship burial.
Use of the site culminated at a time when the ruler (Raedwald) of East Anglia held senior power among the English people, and played a dynamic (if ambiguous) part in the establishment of Christian rulership in England.
The ship-burial probably dates from the early 7th century and was excavated in 1939.
Sutton Hoo
Anglo-Saxon Art: Fuller Brooch
Late 9th century brooch, found in Normandy.
11.4 cm disc of hammered sheet silver inlaid with black niello.
The centre is decorated with the five senses.
In the middle is Sight
Taste (top left)
Smell (top right)
Touch (bottom right)
Hearing (bottom left)
The outer border consists of humans, bird, animal and plant motifs.
Unusually it does not represent divinity.
Anglo-Saxon Art: Manuscripts
Illuminated Anglo-Saxon manuscripts survive, such as the Benedictional of St. Æthelwold and Leofric Missal drawing on Hiberno-Saxon art, and, Carolingian and Byzantine art for style and iconography.
Combines northern ornamental traditions with Mediterranean figural traditions.
Anglo-Saxon Art: Manuscripts
Dates between 963 and 984. Contains a Latin inscription which describes how it was made:
A bishop, the great Æthelwold, whom the Lord had made patron of Winchester, ordered a certain monk subject to him to write the present book . . . He commanded also to be made in this book many frames well adorned and filled with various figures decorated with many beautiful colours and with gold. This book the Boanerges aforesaid caused to be indicted for himself . . . Let all who look upon this book pray always that after the term of the flesh I may abide in heaven Û Godeman the scribe, as a suppliant, earnestly asks this…
West Stow
Hamlet of West Stow, Suffolk
Occupied during the 5th–7th centuries
5 acres excavated – 1960s & 1970s
7 larger house = family halls? c.12m long; hearth; S. side door
60 Sunken-featured buildings (grubenhauser)
West Stow: finds
Yeavering, Northumbria
Anglo-Saxon villa and royal palace – earliest known (Bede: Ad Gefrin)
Identified 1949 aerial photography
Excavated 1950s & 1960s by Brian Hope Taylor
Great enclosure: circular entrance works – a corral for animals?
Archaeological evidence for fire – all buildings burnt to the ground (in AD633: King Edwin killed; massacres in Northumbria).
Yeavering, Northumbria
Bronze Age burial mound with large upright pole: Focus for pagan Anglo-Saxon burials? Building aid?
The Great Hall: 7th century. Massive timbers, communal centre: Feasting, music, singing, royal ceremonies
Area ruled but not peopled by Anglo-Saxons?
Theatre: cuneus
Unique in A-S England
Triangular stepped structure w/ stage
Performance, assembly?
Alfred the Great (871-899)
King of Wessex who wielded power over all of so-called ‘Heptarchy’ (see language map)
Defeats newest arrivals (Danes)
Issued a Code of Laws for all the realm
Began the English Navy
Commissioned the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (often taken as a measure of the stability of his reign)
From Alfred to William, 899-1066
Alfred’s successors were not great rulers—Ethelred the Redeless (stupid), for example—and the Vikings under King Cnut actually assumed control of the realm.
Cnut’s successor had no heirs and created a question of who would become king
3 candidates: Harold Hardrada, Harold Godwinson of Wessex, William, Duke of Normandy
William wins Battle of Hastings, October 1066
Feudalism
Social contract between ‘lords’ and ‘vassals’
Theoretically it is reciprocal (see diagram)
In practise in had centralising tendencies
Became the dominant political system in Europe
Becomes synonymous with the Normans
What did it replace??
Viking Towns
York, Birka, Hedeby, Dublin
Based on trade
Chattels not real estate
Dublin
1000 AD
Dublin, 1170
William I—King of England (1066-1087)
Introduced Norman Feudalism into England—emphasized power of King (Salisbury Oath)
Domesday Survey
Much central authority compared to earlier governmental arrangements in England
Great Council created out of Witan
Curia Regis established
But who were these ‘Normans’??
Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1073-1088
Willliam and Harold
Battle
William’s Feast
Normans?
Normandy is approximately the same region as the old church province of Rouen
Was sometimes called Brittania Nova and western Flanders.
No natural frontiers and was previously merely an administrative unit.
Viking settlers begun arriving in the 880s, divided between a small colony in Upper (or eastern) Normandy and a larger one in Lower (or western) Normandy.
Rollo
In 911 AD Charles III of France gave Normandy to the Viking leader Rollo who became a Christian. Vikings helped adopt the French language and organized a strong state in Normandy.
Rollo’s grave, Rouen
Rollo
Passed title to his son in 927 before his death.
Normandy
From the 10th century the Norse settled and adopted the language and culture of the French majority.
After a generation or two, the Normans were generally indistinguishable from their French neighbours.
In Normandy, they adopted the growing feudal doctrines of the rest of northern France.
The old French aristocracy could trace their families back to Carolingian times.
The Normans knights rended to remain poor and land-hungry.
By 1066, Normandy had been exporting fighting horsemen for more than a generation.
Prior to 1066 and then crusades knighthood before the time of the Crusades held little social status.
Mottes
Illustrated on the Bayeux Tapestry
Mottes
Illustrated on the Bayeux Tapestry
Mottes
Illustrated on the Bayeux Tapestry
Mottes
Bayeux Tapestry showing the motte at Hastings being built.
Architecture and the early Normans
There was a resurgence in the development of distinct architectural styles under Charlemagne.
Palace Chapel of Charlemagne, Aachen, 792-805
Monasteries
Designs for the monasteries had already been drawn up under order of Charlemagne
Developed a role as cultural/learning centers
St. Gall
Abbey at Cluny, begun 910
French monastery, Benedictine monks
Largest, most powerful monastery, 10th-12th c.
Early Christian vs. Romanesque
This is the difference in effect of a barrel vault (on the right) and the pre-existing style of roof.
Cluny
Three main phases from 910 onwards (coinciding with the emerging Norman state).
The greatest monastic Romanesque church, Cluny III (1088-1121), did not survive the French Revolution but has been reconstructed in drawings
Double-aisled church almost 137 m long, with 15 small chapels in transepts and ambulatory
Its design influenced Romanesque and Gothic churches in Burgundy and beyond, often coinciding with the spread of liturgical practices under Norman influence
Cluny III
3rd Abbey Church at Cluny
Largest church in the Christian world
Vertical emphasis
3rd Abbey Church at Cluny, 1049
Largest church in the Christian world
Like Roman basilica but more elaborate
Established ‘Romanesque’ style.
3rd Abbey Church at Cluny, 1049
Vertical emphasis was possible as the churches had very thick walls
The vault was constructed as a series of arches with the wight carried by the large pillars.
St. Sernin, c. 1080
France led the way in the development of Romanesque.
Typical Romanesque Church Plans
St. Etienne, c. 1067-1135
Romanesque
The term “Romanesque” itself was first used in the 19th century. The word Romanesque originally meant "in the Roman manner.“
Use of the Roman round arch, adoption of the major forms of antique Roman vaulting (contained, strong, weighty and somber style)
Most Romanesque churches retained the basic plan of the Early Christian basilica: a long, three-aisled nave intercepted by a transept and terminating in a semicircular apse crowned by a conch, or half-dome
European movement in architecture (10-12th centuries), especially in Italy, France, England and Germany
St. Etienne, Romanesque Facade
Plain
Divided into three sections
Squat
Massive
Tower of London, c. 1078-1097
Most famous Romanesque building in Britain?
Tower of London, c. 1078-1097
The interior features all shown Romanesque influence:
Round-headed windows
Round thick pillars
Barrel-vault
St. Etienne, Romanesque Facade
Plain
Divided into three sections
Squat
Massive
Tower of London, c. 1078-1097
Sculpture as Church Decoration
La Madeleine, Vezelay, France
c. 1120-1132
Tympanum
Narthex
Manuscript paintings as inspiration for sculpture
La Madeleine, capitals
Romanesque Painting-Illuminated Manuscripts
Life, Death and Linguistics in the Iron Age
Life, Death etc ...
Ryton-on-Dunsmore
Iron Age Daily Life: Agriculture
Quern, sickles, ploughshare (right middle)
Evidence from carbonised grain, and, pollen
Emmer wheat
Spelt
Bread Wheat
Barley
Millet
Beans
Peas
Lentils
Grain storage
Grain processed in various stages:
Heating
Beating
Winnowing Storage pits, usually 1-2 m deep (and up to 3 m), holding1.5 tonnes (Tacitus and Pliny) Grain at the seal germinates and stops germination.
Iron Age Daily Life: Blacksmith
Wooden bowls and vessels
Iron Age Daily Life; Pottery
Lifestock
Iron Age Daily Life: Changes?
Iron Age Daily Life: Textiles
Pre-Iron Age and Iron Age
Broadly similar, culturally and in terms of technology (with the addition of iron).
Many tools are the same.
Social organisation may have not been significantly different.
Should we rely on the classical authors to provide further illustration of the lifestyles of Iron Age peoples?
Are they relevant to Ireland??
Can linguistics help us here?
Language
There are various arguments about the development of Celtic languages.
It is now recognised that the difficulty with plotting the evolution of any language is that they rarely follow strict rules.
In Ireland, after the 5th century AD, it is possible to spot how new words enter the language and see what was introduced, culturally.
These loanwords represent the aspects of the archaeological evidence that are easiest to interpret.
Latin loan-words
As found in Old Irish, Scots Gaelic, Manx and English
Celtic languages
Branch of the Indo-European group of languages.
Usually divided into four sub-groups.
Celtic languages
The division occured (depending on your favourite sources) at 4700-1700 BC or 1200-800 BC.
Celtic languages
Gaulish and related languages Lepontic, Noric, and Galatian. These were once spoken in a wide arc from France to Turkey and from Belgium to northern Italy.
Celtic languages
Celtiberian, anciently spoken in the Iberian peninsula in the areas of modern Northern Portugal, and Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, Aragón, and León in Spain. Lusitanian may also have been a Celtic language.
Celtic languages
Goidelic, including Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx. At one time there were Irish on the coast of southwest England and on the coast of north and south Wales.
Celtic languages
Brythonic (also called British or Brittonic), including Welsh, Breton, Cornish, Cumbric, the hypothetical ‘Ivernic’, and possibly also Pictish. There may have been a Brythonic language in the Isle of Man before 9th century AD. However, Pictish may not be Indo-European and ‘Ivernic’ may actually be ‘Goidelic’.
Celtic languages
In several characteristics they resemble some non-Indo-European languages. These include:
absence of a present participle (e.g. talking) and the use instead of a verbal noun (found also in Egyptian and Berber)
the frequent expression of agency by means of an impersonal passive construction (e.g. it is said) instead of by a verbal subject in the nominative case (as in Egyptian, Berber, Basque, and some Caucasian and Eskimo languages)
positioning of the verb at the beginning of a sentence (typical of Egyptian and Berber)
Substrate analysis in North-Alpine Europe
Non-Indo-European features in Indo-European languages can be explained by substrate features, e.g., if we take the vocabulary of Celtic languages they are Indo-European, but the syntax, the way sentences are formed and the technical aspects of the languages are non-Indo-European.
Some people suggest that there were only two language families in Europe before Indo-European expansion; some features can be traced because there are direct descendants of these proto-languages.
Before the spread of Indo-European languages across Western Europe
Non-Indo-European languages present in Western Europe 2000 years ago (or before) are supposed to have preceded the spread of Indo-European languages (except Phoenician settlements): Basque, Iberian, Ligurian, Tartessian, ...
There is only indirect evidence for these, because first evidence of the presence of Basque is relatively recent (2000 years ago).
Non-Indo-European languages in Europe after last Ice-Age (after Venneman 2003)
Vasconic (VH)
Semitidic
Pictish: Inscriptions and placenames (e.g. Pit -, as in Pittodrie)
Aboyne (Ogham inscription)
‘nehhtvrobbaccennevv maqqotalluorrh’
Nechtan (nehht)
son of Talorc (maqqotalluorrh)
Maqqo (mac in Irish)…talluorrh (Talorc)
What does ‘vrobbaccennevv’ mean?
Pictish: Inscriptions and placenames (e.g. Pit -, as in Pittodrie)
Bressay: ‘crroscc:nahhtvvddadds:dattr:ann bennises:meqqddrroann’ (meggddrroan is taken to be ‘... son of Drostan’)
Lunnasting: ‘ettecuhetts:ahehhttannn:hccvvevv:nehhtons’ also contains ‘nehht’ (Nechtan)
Despite being able to read some parts, most of the text is indecipherable.
The VH and genetic studies showing post-glacial colonisation of Europe (Torroni et al 1998, 2001)
Vasconic expansion would have followed the repopulation of Europe by Vasconic people leaving the Aquitanian-Iberian refugium after the last ice-age (i.e. where the Basque language survived)
(from Venneman 2003)
DNA mapping (haplogroup R1b)
Linguistic arguments for the VH (Vasconic)
Visegimal counting in some Romance, Celtic and Germanic languages, i.e. four score for 80, quatre-vingts in French (four 20s), daichead in Irish (two 20s).
First syllable accent innovation in Germanic, Celtic and Italic languages.
River-names of North-Alpine Europe with Vasconic roots (is-, ur-, aran-, -alde) and morphems (-a); + agglutinative morphology.
Etymologies of non-IE words found in IE languages.
Venneman
Venneman’s work is not univerally accepted, particularly his reconstructed Vasconic and Semitidic groups (and that Pictish was Semitic).
However, the substrate of the Celtic languages is real.
If there is a pre-Indo-European substrate which appears to have its closest relatives in North Africa, should we look there for our best parallels for the cultures to illustrate prehistory including the Iron Age?
Late Examples?
What other influences are present in this late art style?
The carpet page on the right is from the Abbasid Qu’ran which is 9th century in date.
The Book of Durrow is 7th century.
Late Examples
The cross depicted on a carpet page on the right is from the Harklean Gospel Book, a 10th century copy of a 7th century version of the Syriac Gospels.
This is the same date as the Books of Durrow and Kells.
Beyond the Celts
These two spirals are from Newgrange and Tassili in Algeria.
North African Influence?
The cross on the left is a Coptic (North African) leather cross.
The cross on the right is from Fahan Mura in County Donegal.
It is assumed that this is Coptic influence on Irish Christianity.
Are these actually LATE examples.
Atlantean (Bob Quinn)
http://ie.youtube.com/watch?v=uI-LFQeKkUg
http://ie.youtube.com/watch?v=Npx-oVgnOGs
Typical Farm
Villages: Biskupin, Poland (700-400 BC)
Biskupin
Fürstensitze: ‘Royal Sites’
There are a handful of significant sites which are associated with princely burials or exotic goods:
Hochdorf
Heuneburg
Glauberg
Vix
Magdalenenberg
This has influenced interpretation in Ireland (Tara, Navan Fort etc).
Hallstatt, Austria
Glauberg
Sandstone statue, or stele, fully preserved except for its feet (the type of sandstone is available within a few kilometres of Glauberg).
Much detail is clearly visible: his trousers, composite armour tunic, wooden shield and a typical La Tène sword hanging from his right side.
Glauberg
He wears a torc with three pendants, remarkably similar to the one from the chamber in mound 1, several rings on both arms and one on the right hand.
Glauberg
On his head, he wears a La Tene helmet crowned by two protrusions, resembling the shape of a mistletoe leaf. Such headdresses are also known from a handful of contemporary sculptures.
If mistletoe held a magical or religious significance, it could indicate that the warrior depicted also played the role of a priest.
Fragments of three similar statues were also discovered in the area. It is suggested that all four statues once stood in the rectangular enclosure.
The Chamber
1879 Plan (Kleinaspergle)
Hochdorf
Excavation of a barrow revealed a chamber containing a man of 40 years old who had been laid out on a bronze couch.
He had been buried with a gold-plated torc on his neck, a bracelet on his right arm, and most notably, thin embossed gold plaques were on his now-disintigrated shoes.
At the foot of the couch was a large cauldron decorated with three lions around the brim.
The east side of the tomb contained a four-wheeled wagon holding a set of bronze dishes for nine people.
At 6 ft 2 in (187 cm) he was quite tall.
Some functional objects were present
Hochdorf
Arrangement of the burial
Heuneburg Danube 300x150 m plateau several phases beginning unorganised
Heuneburg: Later ‘planned’ layout
Murus Gallicus Western La Tene Zone
Ryton-on-Dunsmore
Iron Age Daily Life: Agriculture
Quern, sickles, ploughshare (right middle)
Evidence from carbonised grain, and, pollen
Emmer wheat
Spelt
Bread Wheat
Barley
Millet
Beans
Peas
Lentils
Grain storage
Grain processed in various stages:
Heating
Beating
Winnowing Storage pits, usually 1-2 m deep (and up to 3 m), holding1.5 tonnes (Tacitus and Pliny) Grain at the seal germinates and stops germination.
Iron Age Daily Life: Blacksmith
Wooden bowls and vessels
Iron Age Daily Life; Pottery
Lifestock
Iron Age Daily Life: Changes?
Iron Age Daily Life: Textiles
Pre-Iron Age and Iron Age
Broadly similar, culturally and in terms of technology (with the addition of iron).
Many tools are the same.
Social organisation may have not been significantly different.
Should we rely on the classical authors to provide further illustration of the lifestyles of Iron Age peoples?
Are they relevant to Ireland??
Can linguistics help us here?
Language
There are various arguments about the development of Celtic languages.
It is now recognised that the difficulty with plotting the evolution of any language is that they rarely follow strict rules.
In Ireland, after the 5th century AD, it is possible to spot how new words enter the language and see what was introduced, culturally.
These loanwords represent the aspects of the archaeological evidence that are easiest to interpret.
Latin loan-words
As found in Old Irish, Scots Gaelic, Manx and English
Celtic languages
Branch of the Indo-European group of languages.
Usually divided into four sub-groups.
Celtic languages
The division occured (depending on your favourite sources) at 4700-1700 BC or 1200-800 BC.
Celtic languages
Gaulish and related languages Lepontic, Noric, and Galatian. These were once spoken in a wide arc from France to Turkey and from Belgium to northern Italy.
Celtic languages
Celtiberian, anciently spoken in the Iberian peninsula in the areas of modern Northern Portugal, and Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, Aragón, and León in Spain. Lusitanian may also have been a Celtic language.
Celtic languages
Goidelic, including Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx. At one time there were Irish on the coast of southwest England and on the coast of north and south Wales.
Celtic languages
Brythonic (also called British or Brittonic), including Welsh, Breton, Cornish, Cumbric, the hypothetical ‘Ivernic’, and possibly also Pictish. There may have been a Brythonic language in the Isle of Man before 9th century AD. However, Pictish may not be Indo-European and ‘Ivernic’ may actually be ‘Goidelic’.
Celtic languages
In several characteristics they resemble some non-Indo-European languages. These include:
absence of a present participle (e.g. talking) and the use instead of a verbal noun (found also in Egyptian and Berber)
the frequent expression of agency by means of an impersonal passive construction (e.g. it is said) instead of by a verbal subject in the nominative case (as in Egyptian, Berber, Basque, and some Caucasian and Eskimo languages)
positioning of the verb at the beginning of a sentence (typical of Egyptian and Berber)
Substrate analysis in North-Alpine Europe
Non-Indo-European features in Indo-European languages can be explained by substrate features, e.g., if we take the vocabulary of Celtic languages they are Indo-European, but the syntax, the way sentences are formed and the technical aspects of the languages are non-Indo-European.
Some people suggest that there were only two language families in Europe before Indo-European expansion; some features can be traced because there are direct descendants of these proto-languages.
Before the spread of Indo-European languages across Western Europe
Non-Indo-European languages present in Western Europe 2000 years ago (or before) are supposed to have preceded the spread of Indo-European languages (except Phoenician settlements): Basque, Iberian, Ligurian, Tartessian, ...
There is only indirect evidence for these, because first evidence of the presence of Basque is relatively recent (2000 years ago).
Non-Indo-European languages in Europe after last Ice-Age (after Venneman 2003)
Vasconic (VH)
Semitidic
Pictish: Inscriptions and placenames (e.g. Pit -, as in Pittodrie)
Aboyne (Ogham inscription)
‘nehhtvrobbaccennevv maqqotalluorrh’
Nechtan (nehht)
son of Talorc (maqqotalluorrh)
Maqqo (mac in Irish)…talluorrh (Talorc)
What does ‘vrobbaccennevv’ mean?
Pictish: Inscriptions and placenames (e.g. Pit -, as in Pittodrie)
Bressay: ‘crroscc:nahhtvvddadds:dattr:ann bennises:meqqddrroann’ (meggddrroan is taken to be ‘... son of Drostan’)
Lunnasting: ‘ettecuhetts:ahehhttannn:hccvvevv:nehhtons’ also contains ‘nehht’ (Nechtan)
Despite being able to read some parts, most of the text is indecipherable.
The VH and genetic studies showing post-glacial colonisation of Europe (Torroni et al 1998, 2001)
Vasconic expansion would have followed the repopulation of Europe by Vasconic people leaving the Aquitanian-Iberian refugium after the last ice-age (i.e. where the Basque language survived)
(from Venneman 2003)
DNA mapping (haplogroup R1b)
Linguistic arguments for the VH (Vasconic)
Visegimal counting in some Romance, Celtic and Germanic languages, i.e. four score for 80, quatre-vingts in French (four 20s), daichead in Irish (two 20s).
First syllable accent innovation in Germanic, Celtic and Italic languages.
River-names of North-Alpine Europe with Vasconic roots (is-, ur-, aran-, -alde) and morphems (-a); + agglutinative morphology.
Etymologies of non-IE words found in IE languages.
Venneman
Venneman’s work is not univerally accepted, particularly his reconstructed Vasconic and Semitidic groups (and that Pictish was Semitic).
However, the substrate of the Celtic languages is real.
If there is a pre-Indo-European substrate which appears to have its closest relatives in North Africa, should we look there for our best parallels for the cultures to illustrate prehistory including the Iron Age?
Late Examples?
What other influences are present in this late art style?
The carpet page on the right is from the Abbasid Qu’ran which is 9th century in date.
The Book of Durrow is 7th century.
Late Examples
The cross depicted on a carpet page on the right is from the Harklean Gospel Book, a 10th century copy of a 7th century version of the Syriac Gospels.
This is the same date as the Books of Durrow and Kells.
Beyond the Celts
These two spirals are from Newgrange and Tassili in Algeria.
North African Influence?
The cross on the left is a Coptic (North African) leather cross.
The cross on the right is from Fahan Mura in County Donegal.
It is assumed that this is Coptic influence on Irish Christianity.
Are these actually LATE examples.
Atlantean (Bob Quinn)
http://ie.youtube.com/watch?v=uI-LFQeKkUg
http://ie.youtube.com/watch?v=Npx-oVgnOGs
Typical Farm
Villages: Biskupin, Poland (700-400 BC)
Biskupin
Fürstensitze: ‘Royal Sites’
There are a handful of significant sites which are associated with princely burials or exotic goods:
Hochdorf
Heuneburg
Glauberg
Vix
Magdalenenberg
This has influenced interpretation in Ireland (Tara, Navan Fort etc).
Hallstatt, Austria
Glauberg
Sandstone statue, or stele, fully preserved except for its feet (the type of sandstone is available within a few kilometres of Glauberg).
Much detail is clearly visible: his trousers, composite armour tunic, wooden shield and a typical La Tène sword hanging from his right side.
Glauberg
He wears a torc with three pendants, remarkably similar to the one from the chamber in mound 1, several rings on both arms and one on the right hand.
Glauberg
On his head, he wears a La Tene helmet crowned by two protrusions, resembling the shape of a mistletoe leaf. Such headdresses are also known from a handful of contemporary sculptures.
If mistletoe held a magical or religious significance, it could indicate that the warrior depicted also played the role of a priest.
Fragments of three similar statues were also discovered in the area. It is suggested that all four statues once stood in the rectangular enclosure.
The Chamber
1879 Plan (Kleinaspergle)
Hochdorf
Excavation of a barrow revealed a chamber containing a man of 40 years old who had been laid out on a bronze couch.
He had been buried with a gold-plated torc on his neck, a bracelet on his right arm, and most notably, thin embossed gold plaques were on his now-disintigrated shoes.
At the foot of the couch was a large cauldron decorated with three lions around the brim.
The east side of the tomb contained a four-wheeled wagon holding a set of bronze dishes for nine people.
At 6 ft 2 in (187 cm) he was quite tall.
Some functional objects were present
Hochdorf
Arrangement of the burial
Heuneburg Danube 300x150 m plateau several phases beginning unorganised
Heuneburg: Later ‘planned’ layout
Murus Gallicus Western La Tene Zone
Ritual, Religion and 'Celts'
Natio est omnis Gallorum admodum dedita religionibus
The people of Gaul think a lot of ritual activities
Julius Caesar
Classic sources:
Three-fold learned order in Gaul:
Druids, Vates, Bards
Have varying degrees of prophetic, magical and religious powers
Gundestrup Cauldron, Denmark
La Tène, Lake Neuchâtel, Switzerland
Strabo gives the following account:
“… they have a barbarous and absurd custom, common however with many nations of the north, of suspending the heads of their enemies from their horses’ necks on their return from battle, and when they have arrived nailing them as a spectacle to their gates.”
Roquepertuse was a sanctuary where the only permanent residents were priests.
It was destroyed by the Romans in 124 BC and was re-discovered in 1860.
Main phases date to the 3rd century BC, but may have begun in the 5th or 6th century BC.
Evidence of dual-faced sculptures
Columns with cavities for human skulls
Bog bodies of North-Western Europe:
Violent death
Clothes but rarely any objects
In bog-pools, held down
Physically good condition, but often malformation
Oldcroghan Man, Co. Offaly
Oldcroghan Man, Co. Offaly
Clonycavan Man, Co. Meath
Clonycavan Man, Co. Meath
Kelly, E.P. 2006. Secrets of the Bog Bodies: the enigma of the Iron Age explained. Archaeology Ireland 20(1), 26-30.
The people of Gaul think a lot of ritual activities
Julius Caesar
Classic sources:
Three-fold learned order in Gaul:
Druids, Vates, Bards
Have varying degrees of prophetic, magical and religious powers
Gundestrup Cauldron, Denmark
La Tène, Lake Neuchâtel, Switzerland
Strabo gives the following account:
“… they have a barbarous and absurd custom, common however with many nations of the north, of suspending the heads of their enemies from their horses’ necks on their return from battle, and when they have arrived nailing them as a spectacle to their gates.”
Roquepertuse was a sanctuary where the only permanent residents were priests.
It was destroyed by the Romans in 124 BC and was re-discovered in 1860.
Main phases date to the 3rd century BC, but may have begun in the 5th or 6th century BC.
Evidence of dual-faced sculptures
Columns with cavities for human skulls
Bog bodies of North-Western Europe:
Violent death
Clothes but rarely any objects
In bog-pools, held down
Physically good condition, but often malformation
Oldcroghan Man, Co. Offaly
Oldcroghan Man, Co. Offaly
Clonycavan Man, Co. Meath
Clonycavan Man, Co. Meath
Kelly, E.P. 2006. Secrets of the Bog Bodies: the enigma of the Iron Age explained. Archaeology Ireland 20(1), 26-30.
Who were the Celts?
Vercingetorix
Cruel
„The wives are interrogated like slaves. If found guilty they are put to death after every sort of cruel torment…“
„At properly conducted funerals the slaves and clients who have been dear to him were burnt along with him“ J. Caesar
Clonycavan Man, Co. Meath
What is the Iron Age?
Period of the Celts
Age of Iron
The period between the Bronze Age and the Medieval period
The period between 800 BC and 1st c BC/AD
Prehistory divided up into chronological phases, associated with increasingly advanced technology i.e. evolution in skill, complexity of process and quality/durability of product
(Danish archaeologists, Thomsen and Worsaee: 3 Age system).
Iron Age – Defining characteristics:
New material Iron
Coincides with:
Change in society structures
Religious beliefs
Social organisation
Material culture:
New artefact types
New artstyle
New materials
The new material Iron
Hallstatt, Austria
La Tène, Lake Neuchâtel, Switzerland
Why do we call these people “the Celts”?
Greek periplus (from peripleo – I sail) 6thc BC
fragments survived in poem of the 4th century, where the Celts are mentioned as to be present in a country “which they have taken from the Ligurians ” i.e. Northern Italy or Southern France
Herodotus (450BC): “the first historian”:
“The Istros (the Danube) which comes from the Celts and the City of Pyrene, flows through Europe “
Sources of Danube are in the Western Hallstatt area, i.e. Eastern France,
Southwest Germany and Northern Switzerland. Pyrene might be Heuneburg or Hohenasperg.
How do they know?
Increased contact contact between Greek, Romans and Celts in the 4th c BC
Celtic mercenaries described from 4th c BC in hellenic forces
Reports of mass movements and raids into Po Valley from North of the Alps. 390 BC: Sennones with Brennos to Clusium over Appenin; Celtic settlement in Northern Italy (gallia cisalpina)
Raids into Balkan, Greece and Asia Minor
387/86 Battle at the Allia
279BC Raid on Delphi
Cruel
„The wives are interrogated like slaves. If found guilty they are put to death after every sort of cruel torment…“
„At properly conducted funerals the slaves and clients who have been dear to him were burnt along with him“ J. Caesar
Clonycavan Man, Co. Meath
What is the Iron Age?
Period of the Celts
Age of Iron
The period between the Bronze Age and the Medieval period
The period between 800 BC and 1st c BC/AD
Prehistory divided up into chronological phases, associated with increasingly advanced technology i.e. evolution in skill, complexity of process and quality/durability of product
(Danish archaeologists, Thomsen and Worsaee: 3 Age system).
Iron Age – Defining characteristics:
New material Iron
Coincides with:
Change in society structures
Religious beliefs
Social organisation
Material culture:
New artefact types
New artstyle
New materials
The new material Iron
Hallstatt, Austria
La Tène, Lake Neuchâtel, Switzerland
Why do we call these people “the Celts”?
Greek periplus (from peripleo – I sail) 6thc BC
fragments survived in poem of the 4th century, where the Celts are mentioned as to be present in a country “which they have taken from the Ligurians ” i.e. Northern Italy or Southern France
Herodotus (450BC): “the first historian”:
“The Istros (the Danube) which comes from the Celts and the City of Pyrene, flows through Europe “
Sources of Danube are in the Western Hallstatt area, i.e. Eastern France,
Southwest Germany and Northern Switzerland. Pyrene might be Heuneburg or Hohenasperg.
How do they know?
Increased contact contact between Greek, Romans and Celts in the 4th c BC
Celtic mercenaries described from 4th c BC in hellenic forces
Reports of mass movements and raids into Po Valley from North of the Alps. 390 BC: Sennones with Brennos to Clusium over Appenin; Celtic settlement in Northern Italy (gallia cisalpina)
Raids into Balkan, Greece and Asia Minor
387/86 Battle at the Allia
279BC Raid on Delphi
La Tene Art and Deposition in Ireland
Early Style/ Orientalising Style – La Tène A
Weisskirchen, Germany
Auvers-sur-Oise, France
Orientalising: Lyre or griffin?
La Tene in Ireland
Iron Age find contexts
Little contextual information about many Irish La Tene finds.
Typical single finds – Beehive Querns
Clonad bog-butter keg, Clonad Bog, Co. Offaly (NMI 2000:58)
Rosberry bog-butter keg, Co. Kildare (NMI 1970:32)
Wooden vessel from Pallasboy Townland, Toar Bog, Co. Westmeath c. 100BC Triple ply twisted wooden withy Pegged in place Repaired with wedges when being made and later with a wooden panel sewn to the side with a fine withy
Some major finds
Information is often poor!
Lisncrogher, Co. Antrim
Original contents of Lisnacrogher assemblage included wooden objects.
Broighter
Found in 1896 in boggy ground. Descriptions suggest that it was buried in some sort of container – possibly a bag – that had mostly rotted.
Its find circumstances have been described as curious due to a protacted court case over ownership of the find.
Broighter
Tom Nicholl, who discovered the Broighter hoard.
It was wrapped in a container sometimes described as like an umbrella.
This has led to confusion over the origin of the hoard and whether it was genuine.
The court case revolved around the possibility of whether the hoard was deposited on land which was inundated or had been hidden (i.e. was treasure trove).
Broighter
Seahorses?
Boats?
Sea-offering?
Loughnashade, Co. Armagh
Pooler horn (the surviving horn)
Browne horn – illustrated in 1802 then stolen.
No provenance (Ireland: NMI), possibly the horn owned by Hall and Corry.
Plunkett watercolours (donated to RIA in January 1847)
Ardbrin horn
Nice horn
Wooden horns: 1. Killyfaddy (Tyrone) 2. Killeshandra (Cavan)
Weisskirchen, Germany
Auvers-sur-Oise, France
Orientalising: Lyre or griffin?
La Tene in Ireland
Iron Age find contexts
Little contextual information about many Irish La Tene finds.
Typical single finds – Beehive Querns
Clonad bog-butter keg, Clonad Bog, Co. Offaly (NMI 2000:58)
Rosberry bog-butter keg, Co. Kildare (NMI 1970:32)
Wooden vessel from Pallasboy Townland, Toar Bog, Co. Westmeath c. 100BC Triple ply twisted wooden withy Pegged in place Repaired with wedges when being made and later with a wooden panel sewn to the side with a fine withy
Some major finds
Information is often poor!
Lisncrogher, Co. Antrim
Original contents of Lisnacrogher assemblage included wooden objects.
Broighter
Found in 1896 in boggy ground. Descriptions suggest that it was buried in some sort of container – possibly a bag – that had mostly rotted.
Its find circumstances have been described as curious due to a protacted court case over ownership of the find.
Broighter
Tom Nicholl, who discovered the Broighter hoard.
It was wrapped in a container sometimes described as like an umbrella.
This has led to confusion over the origin of the hoard and whether it was genuine.
The court case revolved around the possibility of whether the hoard was deposited on land which was inundated or had been hidden (i.e. was treasure trove).
Broighter
Seahorses?
Boats?
Sea-offering?
Loughnashade, Co. Armagh
Pooler horn (the surviving horn)
Browne horn – illustrated in 1802 then stolen.
No provenance (Ireland: NMI), possibly the horn owned by Hall and Corry.
Plunkett watercolours (donated to RIA in January 1847)
Ardbrin horn
Nice horn
Wooden horns: 1. Killyfaddy (Tyrone) 2. Killeshandra (Cavan)
Charlemagne and the Vikings
Charlemagne and the Viking World
Dr John O’Neill
Charlemagne
King of the Franks, ruled from 768 to 800, then was crown Holy Roman Emperor in 800, died in 814
Central figure in the ‘Carolingian Renaissance’
Developed a strong partnership with the Papacy (to their mutual advantage)
Though his achievements are short lived, they traditionally mark an end to the ‘Dark Ages’
Background: Frankish Gaul
Frankish King Clovis I (reigned from 481-511) was from the Merovingian Dynasty
Convert to Christianity
Merovingian dynasty survived until 751
Eventually replaced by Carolingian Dynasty (partly due to the close relationship between Carolingian kings and papacy)
Monasticism
As towns, and more importantly, literate commerce, fell into disrepair, small, often remote, monastic communities preserved what they valued of the classical world, including literacy and some technology.
The chief strength of the Church was that it preserved learning in the West. Rulers eventually realised they needed the skills that only the clergy possessed.
Monastic Learning
This is a carpet page from the Book of Durrow (also 7th century).
Insular script and illumination was a significant influence on Carolingian styles through the Irish role at continental monasteries like Bobbio.
Writing
Cathach of St Columba (7th century)
Ireland had maintained a literate Christian tradition through the ‘Dark Ages’
The writing style was classical.
Insular Script
Texts were written in Insular script (a variant of half uncial)
This is characterised by the large first letter and descending sizes
Wedge-shaped finials on ascenders (‘b’, ‘d’, ‘l’ etc)
Lack of punctuation
As the texts were almost all in Latin, scribes used accented letters and, following existing tradition, only upper case (i.e. uncial) letters and no punctuation or word separation.
Is this difficult to learn to read (never mind translate)???
withnospacescommasfullstopsorcapitalsthisisnoteasytoreadthisisparticularlythecasewhenitisspreadoutoveranumberoflines
With no spaces, commas, full-stops or capitals this is not easy to read. This is particularly the case when it is spread out over a number of lines!
Carolingian Minuscule: Writing Revolution
Began with the same problems, but made changes:
Uniformity in how letters are formed
Clear printing
More punctuation
Spaces between words
Letters always separated from each other
Carolingian Minuscule is the basis for our scripts today
Renewal in Education
New miniscule was easier to learn which encouraged the copying of manuscripts (both Christian and Roman) and a renewal in scholarship
Led to renewed interest in education (for boys and girls) which was mainly centred in the monastic communities.
Introduction of the seven Liberal arts:
Trivium:
grammar,
logic,
rhetoric
Quadrivium:
astronomy,
geometry,
arithmetic,
music
Renewal in the Church
The impetus the church gave through education and it’s links with Charlemagne improved it’s status.
Significant new foundations: 22 cathedrals, hundreds of monasteries
Ensured Roman liturgy followed in all churches in his Empire (and began the process of suppressing opposing Christian doctrines)
Carolingian Texts
The Carolingian Renaissance
Early Medieval Illumination
Early Medieval Illumination
Clonmore
The Clonmore shrine is believed to be the oldest known example of Irish Christian metalwork.
It was found in pieces between 1990 and 2001 in spoil dredged from the River Blackwater around 1970.
The shrine, which held relics of the saints, consisted originally of nine copper-alloy plates and is just 8cm long, 8cm high and 3cm deep.
Clonmore
The outer surfaces are tinned and decorated with spirals, crescents and trumpet curves reserved against a background of hatching.
The decoration is hand-cut, though in part compass-drawn, and the golden colour of the recessed surfaces contrasts with the silvery patterns in relief.
Such ornament has Iron Age roots, but compares with that of the 7th century Book of Durrow.
Clonmore
The shrine must be approximately contemporary and is a major, if miniature, work of art.
Clonmore is only 15km from Armagh and the shrine might have housed some of the imported, apostolic relics which Armagh promoted in the 7th century in support of its primatial claims.
Clonmore
Fragments of an Irish shrine closely resembling that from Clonmore are preserved in Bobbio in the north of Italy, the famous foundation of the Bangor monk Columbanus, who died there in 615.
The two shrines are related in shape and decoration and had identical hinges and locks.
Tomb-shrine reliquaries
Casket of Teudericus
"Casket of Teudericus" reliquary from the second half of the 7th c.(Canton Valais: Saint Maurice Abbey treasury). This reliquary is a product of the monastic workshop of St. Maurice d'Agaune. Signed by the artist and dedicated by the Priest Teudericus to the monastery.
Emly Shrine
Dates to the late 7th–early 8th century: measures 9.2 x 4.1 x 10.5 cm. Champlevé enamel on bronze over yew wood; gilt bronze moldings, inlay of lead-tin alloyNamed for its nineteenth century owner, Lord Emly of Limerick.
Monymusk Reliquary
This shrine is believed to be linked to St Columba and was made around the 8th century AD. Some believe that the shrine is the famed Breccbennach, carried before Robert the Bruce’s army at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314.
Reliquary of Bishop Attheus
Figures are Saints Mary and John. Silver gilt on wood. Late 8th-century Frankish. (Sion, Valais: Cath. Treas.) 17.5 cm high. The style is transitional, moving from a traditional Sub-Roman linear figure style toward Carolingian naturalism.
Bursa Reliquary (North Italy)
Dates to the early 900s. Made of bone, copper-gilt, wood (19.7 x 18.6 x 8.3 cm). Displays a masterful treatment of ivory wherein the surface is modeled by incision and relief carving while the background is pierced through (ajouré).
Reliquary of Pepin
Dates from about the year 1000. However, pieces of an earlier crucifixion scene were found inside, which may date to Pepin's time (817-38). One side of the reliquary depicts a Crucifixion scene in gold, while the other has two doves. In the Abbey Church of St. Foy, Conques in the South of France.
The Carolingian Renaissance
New emphasis on religious works in metal and crystal to adorn abbeys and palaces.
Renewed use of decorative techniques and materials.
The Carolingian RenaissanceReliquaries
The Carolingian Renaissance
The Carolingian Renaissance
Few mosaics survive, but they were important and likely reflect links to the Byzantine Empire
Carolingian Art
Ottonian Art: A New Holy Roman Empire
German princes in the 10th century try and restore another Holy Roman Empire
Otto II (late 10th century) married a Byzantine princess, strengthening ties between East and West and bringing Byzantine artists into his Holy Roman Empire.
Ottonian Art
Around 870 AD, Carolingian master craftsmen created an opulent image of the crucifixion on the cover of the Lindau Gospels.
No attempt was made to present the scene realistically.
Ottonian art
This may be a crucifixion, but the figure on the cross is very much alive.
He does not suffer in the least.
Ottonian Art
Only a century later there is an entirely new depiction of the same scene.
Christ’s agonized portrayal in the Gero Crucifix, though not wholly realistic, is an entirely compassionate portrayal.
It also marks the reappearance of monumental sculpture
Ottonian Art
The Gero image pulls on the heart-strings of the observer.
Muscles strain.
The body is contorted.
Christ suffers – and, he suffers for man.
Carolingian Disintegration
Charlemagne’s Empire passed intact to his son Louis the Pious (r. 814-840)
Louis divided his Empire amongst his 4 legitimate sons (as was Frankish custom at the time)
Civil war, ended by the Treaty of Verdun in 843, partitioned Empire
Charlemagne’s predecessors failed to reconstruct the Holy Roman Empire (the title was adopted by the Ottonians).
End of the Carolingians
Outside Threats …
Dr John O’Neill
Charlemagne
King of the Franks, ruled from 768 to 800, then was crown Holy Roman Emperor in 800, died in 814
Central figure in the ‘Carolingian Renaissance’
Developed a strong partnership with the Papacy (to their mutual advantage)
Though his achievements are short lived, they traditionally mark an end to the ‘Dark Ages’
Background: Frankish Gaul
Frankish King Clovis I (reigned from 481-511) was from the Merovingian Dynasty
Convert to Christianity
Merovingian dynasty survived until 751
Eventually replaced by Carolingian Dynasty (partly due to the close relationship between Carolingian kings and papacy)
Monasticism
As towns, and more importantly, literate commerce, fell into disrepair, small, often remote, monastic communities preserved what they valued of the classical world, including literacy and some technology.
The chief strength of the Church was that it preserved learning in the West. Rulers eventually realised they needed the skills that only the clergy possessed.
Monastic Learning
This is a carpet page from the Book of Durrow (also 7th century).
Insular script and illumination was a significant influence on Carolingian styles through the Irish role at continental monasteries like Bobbio.
Writing
Cathach of St Columba (7th century)
Ireland had maintained a literate Christian tradition through the ‘Dark Ages’
The writing style was classical.
Insular Script
Texts were written in Insular script (a variant of half uncial)
This is characterised by the large first letter and descending sizes
Wedge-shaped finials on ascenders (‘b’, ‘d’, ‘l’ etc)
Lack of punctuation
As the texts were almost all in Latin, scribes used accented letters and, following existing tradition, only upper case (i.e. uncial) letters and no punctuation or word separation.
Is this difficult to learn to read (never mind translate)???
withnospacescommasfullstopsorcapitalsthisisnoteasytoreadthisisparticularlythecasewhenitisspreadoutoveranumberoflines
With no spaces, commas, full-stops or capitals this is not easy to read. This is particularly the case when it is spread out over a number of lines!
Carolingian Minuscule: Writing Revolution
Began with the same problems, but made changes:
Uniformity in how letters are formed
Clear printing
More punctuation
Spaces between words
Letters always separated from each other
Carolingian Minuscule is the basis for our scripts today
Renewal in Education
New miniscule was easier to learn which encouraged the copying of manuscripts (both Christian and Roman) and a renewal in scholarship
Led to renewed interest in education (for boys and girls) which was mainly centred in the monastic communities.
Introduction of the seven Liberal arts:
Trivium:
grammar,
logic,
rhetoric
Quadrivium:
astronomy,
geometry,
arithmetic,
music
Renewal in the Church
The impetus the church gave through education and it’s links with Charlemagne improved it’s status.
Significant new foundations: 22 cathedrals, hundreds of monasteries
Ensured Roman liturgy followed in all churches in his Empire (and began the process of suppressing opposing Christian doctrines)
Carolingian Texts
The Carolingian Renaissance
Early Medieval Illumination
Early Medieval Illumination
Clonmore
The Clonmore shrine is believed to be the oldest known example of Irish Christian metalwork.
It was found in pieces between 1990 and 2001 in spoil dredged from the River Blackwater around 1970.
The shrine, which held relics of the saints, consisted originally of nine copper-alloy plates and is just 8cm long, 8cm high and 3cm deep.
Clonmore
The outer surfaces are tinned and decorated with spirals, crescents and trumpet curves reserved against a background of hatching.
The decoration is hand-cut, though in part compass-drawn, and the golden colour of the recessed surfaces contrasts with the silvery patterns in relief.
Such ornament has Iron Age roots, but compares with that of the 7th century Book of Durrow.
Clonmore
The shrine must be approximately contemporary and is a major, if miniature, work of art.
Clonmore is only 15km from Armagh and the shrine might have housed some of the imported, apostolic relics which Armagh promoted in the 7th century in support of its primatial claims.
Clonmore
Fragments of an Irish shrine closely resembling that from Clonmore are preserved in Bobbio in the north of Italy, the famous foundation of the Bangor monk Columbanus, who died there in 615.
The two shrines are related in shape and decoration and had identical hinges and locks.
Tomb-shrine reliquaries
Casket of Teudericus
"Casket of Teudericus" reliquary from the second half of the 7th c.(Canton Valais: Saint Maurice Abbey treasury). This reliquary is a product of the monastic workshop of St. Maurice d'Agaune. Signed by the artist and dedicated by the Priest Teudericus to the monastery.
Emly Shrine
Dates to the late 7th–early 8th century: measures 9.2 x 4.1 x 10.5 cm. Champlevé enamel on bronze over yew wood; gilt bronze moldings, inlay of lead-tin alloyNamed for its nineteenth century owner, Lord Emly of Limerick.
Monymusk Reliquary
This shrine is believed to be linked to St Columba and was made around the 8th century AD. Some believe that the shrine is the famed Breccbennach, carried before Robert the Bruce’s army at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314.
Reliquary of Bishop Attheus
Figures are Saints Mary and John. Silver gilt on wood. Late 8th-century Frankish. (Sion, Valais: Cath. Treas.) 17.5 cm high. The style is transitional, moving from a traditional Sub-Roman linear figure style toward Carolingian naturalism.
Bursa Reliquary (North Italy)
Dates to the early 900s. Made of bone, copper-gilt, wood (19.7 x 18.6 x 8.3 cm). Displays a masterful treatment of ivory wherein the surface is modeled by incision and relief carving while the background is pierced through (ajouré).
Reliquary of Pepin
Dates from about the year 1000. However, pieces of an earlier crucifixion scene were found inside, which may date to Pepin's time (817-38). One side of the reliquary depicts a Crucifixion scene in gold, while the other has two doves. In the Abbey Church of St. Foy, Conques in the South of France.
The Carolingian Renaissance
New emphasis on religious works in metal and crystal to adorn abbeys and palaces.
Renewed use of decorative techniques and materials.
The Carolingian RenaissanceReliquaries
The Carolingian Renaissance
The Carolingian Renaissance
Few mosaics survive, but they were important and likely reflect links to the Byzantine Empire
Carolingian Art
Ottonian Art: A New Holy Roman Empire
German princes in the 10th century try and restore another Holy Roman Empire
Otto II (late 10th century) married a Byzantine princess, strengthening ties between East and West and bringing Byzantine artists into his Holy Roman Empire.
Ottonian Art
Around 870 AD, Carolingian master craftsmen created an opulent image of the crucifixion on the cover of the Lindau Gospels.
No attempt was made to present the scene realistically.
Ottonian art
This may be a crucifixion, but the figure on the cross is very much alive.
He does not suffer in the least.
Ottonian Art
Only a century later there is an entirely new depiction of the same scene.
Christ’s agonized portrayal in the Gero Crucifix, though not wholly realistic, is an entirely compassionate portrayal.
It also marks the reappearance of monumental sculpture
Ottonian Art
The Gero image pulls on the heart-strings of the observer.
Muscles strain.
The body is contorted.
Christ suffers – and, he suffers for man.
Carolingian Disintegration
Charlemagne’s Empire passed intact to his son Louis the Pious (r. 814-840)
Louis divided his Empire amongst his 4 legitimate sons (as was Frankish custom at the time)
Civil war, ended by the Treaty of Verdun in 843, partitioned Empire
Charlemagne’s predecessors failed to reconstruct the Holy Roman Empire (the title was adopted by the Ottonians).
End of the Carolingians
Outside Threats …
Medieval Buildings
Medieval Buildings and Miscellaneous Sites
Medieval Buildings in Ireland
Surviving medieval buildings are relatively rare in Ireland.
The surviving buildings are of stone, timber-framed buildings have not survived in Ireland.
The main surviving buildings are:Castles and other fortified residences
Ecclesiastical buildings including cathedrals, churches, abbeys and other monastic centres.
There is little surviving urban architecture that pre-dates 1700.
Early Castles
The vast majority of castles post-date the first Anglo-Norman incursions into Ireland in 1169.
Historical records refer to a number of ‘castles’ that pre-date 1169.
These appear to be earthwork castles not unlike ‘mottes’
Mottes
Mottes are conical mounds erected by the Normans in Ireland after 1169 and mainly before 1220.
Sometimes natural outcrops or earlier earthworks were modified for use as mottes.
There are at least 456 known in Ireland although these are mostly in Leinster and east Ulster.
Motte: Clonard, Co. MeathDate to late 12th to 13th century ADEarthwork castles built by the Normans
Motte: Drumcooly Hill, Co. Offaly
Mottes
Illustrated on the Bayeux Tapestry
Bayeux Tapestry showing the motte at Hastings being built.
Motte construction
Where there have been excavation, mottes appear to have been built using a particular method.
The first stages sees the construction of an earthwork ring.
Motte construction
The earthwork ring for the base of the motte and any outer earthworks are raised in height
The outer earthworks are known as baileys
Motte construction
The earthwork ring is then in-filled, probably using material dug out from around the base to add an enclosing ditch to the base of the mound
Wooden stairs may also have been added
Motte construction
The top of the motte is flattened for use.
Mainly timber buildings were added to mottes in Ireland, although some had stone buildings
Norman Stone Fortesses
The main phase of castle construction in Ireland was from 1175 to 1310.
The earliest castles were built by a handful of powerful knights, in particular Hugh de Lacy (who built Trim, opposite) and John de Courcy (who built Carrickfergus).
Carrickfergus Castle
Built on a rock promontory in Belfast LoughCarrickfergus CastleBuilt by John de Courcy from 1178 onwards
It wasn’t conceived as a single project and it appears to have evolved during construction
The earliest phase at Carrickfergus dates to 1178-1200By 1200, there was a keep, a hall and an outer precinct wall on the rock promontory
There is a fresh water well within the keep
Yellow stone (Cultra stone) used to decorate openings
The ground plan and investigations have indicated that the initial construction plan was modified considerably before it was completedThe base of the keep is not square and the Cultra stone was only added in mid-construction
The original construction may not have included the hall
The outer precinct wall appears to include two phases with the keep only raised after an initial wall was built
De Courcy may have started with a simple stone-walled enclosure for protection and only proceeded to develop the castle when his position was secure
Second major construction campaign saw an enlarged outer ward added in 1215-1223
This provided additional protection to the keep and hall
Final major construction campaign saw a second outer ward added in 1225-1250 with a gate house
The were some later modifications in the 14th century, 16th century, 17th century and 19th century.
Dundrum, Co. Down
Begun by John de Courcy between 1177 and 1203It incorporates a series of phases
It appears to have been preceded by a ringworkThere is a circular keep that seems to have replaced an earlier building
Dundrum, Co. Down
Published plans (e.g. above right) of Dundrum appear to be inaccurate as they do not include a pre-keep structure (that is visible in the interior of the curtain wall) and both towers of the gate house (which appear on maps)
Circular keeps
Nenagh Castle, Co. Tipperary built by Theobald Walter, head of the Butler family between 1200 and 1220.
Many keeps now show as great a concern for display and comfort as security
Nenagh has an ornate Romanesque doorway and large fireplaces
Trim Castle
Built between 1210 and 1220 on the site of an earlier ringwork by Hugh de Lacey
It was linked by the River Boyne to his other major holdings at Drogheda and Dublin.
As part of a major conservation plan it was fully excavated
This identified that it had been preceded by a ringworkIt also showed how it had been designed and set out for constructionTowered Keeps Built by William Marshal the elder and William Marshal the younger from 1207 to 1225 (Carlow, Ferns, Lea in Laois and Terryglass in Tipperary)
Each has a rectangular keep with circular corner towers
Ferns, Co. Wexford: Ferns Castle
Two major royal castles were built in Ireland shortly after 1210
Both gateways had twin D-shaped towers
These had an open plan without a free-standing great tower or keep
This type of castle had been recently developed in France and Wales
Dublin Castle
On 30th August 1204, King John commanded the erection of a strong castle for the defence of the city, administration of justice and safe custody of treasure.The construction of Dublin Castle was completed by 1230
Henry de Londres, Justiciar and Archbishop of Dublin, is credited with this achievement
Limerick Castle
Plan from 17th century Pacata Hibernia
Mid-13th century Castles
Knights and Barons continued to build castles into the 13th century such as Castleroche in Louth.
Castleroche, Co. Louth
Believed to have been built by Rohesia de Verdun in 1236
Exhibits a twin D-shaped gatehouseHas one projecting tower
Incorporates a large hall
Castleroche, Co. LouthView of Hall and Gatehouse from the south-eastGatehouses
Almost all late-12th and early to mid-13th century castles have elaborate gatehouses, generally these are twin-toweredIn some cases the main keep or hall is located at some distance from the gatehouse (e.g. Carrickfergus) in others it is located immediately behind the gatehouse (e.g. Castleroche)Gatehouses
By the mid-13th century the defences of castles become more developed and the focus moves from the keeps to the curtain walls and the gate-towers
Examples built at this time are shown here
Later Medieval Castles
Some castles can be identified that were built in the 14th century
They see further evolutions away from the protected keep with limited gateways features and the use of towers to provide flanking fire for defence
This is Clonmore, Carlow
Hall houses
A group of castles built from the early 13th century through to the 14th centuryLittle or no evidence for outer defences or gatehouses
Hall houses, polygonal castles and Irish stone castlesVarious castles are built in areas outside of Anglo-Norman control in the 13th and 14th century
Irish Castles
Castles built by the Irish, rather than Anglo-Norman lords
Mainly ditched and walled enclosures sometimes with gatehouses
Tower houses
In 1429, a statute of Henry VI decreed that a grant of £10 would be available to every man in the Pale who built a castle of stone by 1439
This should measure 20 ft by 16 ft and 40 ft highThis appears to be the origin of tower houses
True tower houses continued to be built into the 16th century and 17th century in various forms
They may have a surrounding bawn or defended enclosure
They incorporate features such as helical (spiral) staircases and intra-mural passages
Bagenal’s Castle, NewryBuilt by Nicholas Bagenal in 1570s
Plans survive in Crown Records Office in Kew London
Bagenals Castle, Newry
Excavation showed the 1570s ground plan to have a number of inaccuracies.
The real ground plan suggests a tower house like Ballug, Roodstown or Termonfeckin in Louth
Ecclesiastical Architecture
Cathedrals
Churches
Abbeys and other monastic centres
Pre-Norman Irish architecture is replaced by classical styles such as Romanesque and Gothic Romanesque
Applied to various architectural devices and types of artDetail from Clonfert cathedral (3rd quarter of 12th century)
RomanesqueWest door of Clonfert CathedralCurving arch of the door is typical of Romanesque
Romanesque: Cormacs Chapel (Cashel)Dates to 1125-1150One of the best examples of Romanesque architecture in Ireland
Cormacs Chapel
Irish Romanesque
The first Romanesque buildings: Cormac's Chapel at Cashel (1127–34) features square towers, doorways in recessed orders, barrel and ribbed vaults, quarried stone, and architectural sculpture. Cormac's chapel boasts one of the finest looking corbelled roof which is constructed of ashlar, cut from local sandstone. Although impressive in appearance, the structural components were not as well integrated as in some of the earlier examples: the barrel vault was too low to support the roof, which instead had to be reinforced by a pointed vault immediately under the external masonry.
A more radical innovation occurred here with the addition of square towers incorporated at the east end of the nave, presenting a new architectural model for the Irish church. Paired towers, flanking the chancel or the apse, were a feature of many churches within the German Empire, and it has long been assumed that those at Cashel were derived from St James at Regensburg or one of the other Schöttenkirchen. But eastern towers and turrets were also a feature of Norman churches in England, so the background may be closer to home.But this particular architectural formula was not repeated elsewhere in Ireland. Cormac’s ChapelIn addition, Cormac's Chapel was among the first Irish buildings to be embellished with sculpture, and as such is thought to mark the birth of Hiberno-Romanesque, providing an initial injection of foreign techniques, which within a few years were integrated into Irish church-building.
Cormac’s ChapelThe prominence given in the annals to the consecration of Cormac's Chapel in 1134 suggests that the novelties of the building were widely appreciated, which makes it curious that the architecture did not have a greater influence. The artistic splendor was enhanced by painted decoration, remnants of which survive in the chancel, where human figures, one wearing a crown, can be discerned on the vault. The scheme was carried out with costly materials, which included lapis lazulae, vermilion and gold leaf. The purpose of so much expenditure on one relatively small building has never been satisfactorily established.
Cormac’s Chapel
The larger and more elaborate buildings meant that Irish churches could allow the same liturgical practices as other European churches
This would bring Ireland into line with European practice
Christchurch, Dublin
Begun in 1030, earliest surviving fabric really dates from after 1180
Christchurch
Romanesque plan from crypt Compare it to St. Sernin
Gothic
Some ecclesiastical architecture in Ireland is in the Gothic style well known from Britain and FranceThis is St. Patricks Cathedral, Dublin
Christchurch, Dublin
Begun in 1030, earliest surviving fabric really dates from after 1180
Gothic: Early English1190-1250
Plain lancet windows and arches
Protruding buttresses.
Plate tracery
Circular, moulded capitals.
Pointed, moulded arches.
Capitals with stiff-leaf and crockets E.g. Salisbury
Gothic: Geometric and Decorated
1250-1350
Geometric shapes emerge in Early English styles from 1250-1290 (e.g. Romsey)
Then intersecting tracery appears in middle windows
This becomes more and more elaborate during the early 14th century (e.g. Exeter)
Gothic: Perpendicular
1330-1550
Verticals from top to bottom of windows, horizontal transoms (e.g. Winchester Cathedral shown here)Octagonal piers
Abbeys
The Cistercian introduce a specific architectural plan to Irish monastic centres, such as Mellifont
Other Orders which appear include the Dominicans and Franciscans
Cistercian Abbey (Jerpoint, Co. Kilkenny)
Cistercian Abbeys are laid out on a regular format with each building given a prescribed space within the layout
Franciscan Friary, Quin, Co. Clare
Quin FriaryFranciscans were not as rich as the Cistercians
Medieval Buildings in Ireland
Surviving medieval buildings are relatively rare in Ireland.
The surviving buildings are of stone, timber-framed buildings have not survived in Ireland.
The main surviving buildings are:Castles and other fortified residences
Ecclesiastical buildings including cathedrals, churches, abbeys and other monastic centres.
There is little surviving urban architecture that pre-dates 1700.
Early Castles
The vast majority of castles post-date the first Anglo-Norman incursions into Ireland in 1169.
Historical records refer to a number of ‘castles’ that pre-date 1169.
These appear to be earthwork castles not unlike ‘mottes’
Mottes
Mottes are conical mounds erected by the Normans in Ireland after 1169 and mainly before 1220.
Sometimes natural outcrops or earlier earthworks were modified for use as mottes.
There are at least 456 known in Ireland although these are mostly in Leinster and east Ulster.
Motte: Clonard, Co. MeathDate to late 12th to 13th century ADEarthwork castles built by the Normans
Motte: Drumcooly Hill, Co. Offaly
Mottes
Illustrated on the Bayeux Tapestry
Bayeux Tapestry showing the motte at Hastings being built.
Motte construction
Where there have been excavation, mottes appear to have been built using a particular method.
The first stages sees the construction of an earthwork ring.
Motte construction
The earthwork ring for the base of the motte and any outer earthworks are raised in height
The outer earthworks are known as baileys
Motte construction
The earthwork ring is then in-filled, probably using material dug out from around the base to add an enclosing ditch to the base of the mound
Wooden stairs may also have been added
Motte construction
The top of the motte is flattened for use.
Mainly timber buildings were added to mottes in Ireland, although some had stone buildings
Norman Stone Fortesses
The main phase of castle construction in Ireland was from 1175 to 1310.
The earliest castles were built by a handful of powerful knights, in particular Hugh de Lacy (who built Trim, opposite) and John de Courcy (who built Carrickfergus).
Carrickfergus Castle
Built on a rock promontory in Belfast LoughCarrickfergus CastleBuilt by John de Courcy from 1178 onwards
It wasn’t conceived as a single project and it appears to have evolved during construction
The earliest phase at Carrickfergus dates to 1178-1200By 1200, there was a keep, a hall and an outer precinct wall on the rock promontory
There is a fresh water well within the keep
Yellow stone (Cultra stone) used to decorate openings
The ground plan and investigations have indicated that the initial construction plan was modified considerably before it was completedThe base of the keep is not square and the Cultra stone was only added in mid-construction
The original construction may not have included the hall
The outer precinct wall appears to include two phases with the keep only raised after an initial wall was built
De Courcy may have started with a simple stone-walled enclosure for protection and only proceeded to develop the castle when his position was secure
Second major construction campaign saw an enlarged outer ward added in 1215-1223
This provided additional protection to the keep and hall
Final major construction campaign saw a second outer ward added in 1225-1250 with a gate house
The were some later modifications in the 14th century, 16th century, 17th century and 19th century.
Dundrum, Co. Down
Begun by John de Courcy between 1177 and 1203It incorporates a series of phases
It appears to have been preceded by a ringworkThere is a circular keep that seems to have replaced an earlier building
Dundrum, Co. Down
Published plans (e.g. above right) of Dundrum appear to be inaccurate as they do not include a pre-keep structure (that is visible in the interior of the curtain wall) and both towers of the gate house (which appear on maps)
Circular keeps
Nenagh Castle, Co. Tipperary built by Theobald Walter, head of the Butler family between 1200 and 1220.
Many keeps now show as great a concern for display and comfort as security
Nenagh has an ornate Romanesque doorway and large fireplaces
Trim Castle
Built between 1210 and 1220 on the site of an earlier ringwork by Hugh de Lacey
It was linked by the River Boyne to his other major holdings at Drogheda and Dublin.
As part of a major conservation plan it was fully excavated
This identified that it had been preceded by a ringworkIt also showed how it had been designed and set out for constructionTowered Keeps Built by William Marshal the elder and William Marshal the younger from 1207 to 1225 (Carlow, Ferns, Lea in Laois and Terryglass in Tipperary)
Each has a rectangular keep with circular corner towers
Ferns, Co. Wexford: Ferns Castle
Two major royal castles were built in Ireland shortly after 1210
Both gateways had twin D-shaped towers
These had an open plan without a free-standing great tower or keep
This type of castle had been recently developed in France and Wales
Dublin Castle
On 30th August 1204, King John commanded the erection of a strong castle for the defence of the city, administration of justice and safe custody of treasure.The construction of Dublin Castle was completed by 1230
Henry de Londres, Justiciar and Archbishop of Dublin, is credited with this achievement
Limerick Castle
Plan from 17th century Pacata Hibernia
Mid-13th century Castles
Knights and Barons continued to build castles into the 13th century such as Castleroche in Louth.
Castleroche, Co. Louth
Believed to have been built by Rohesia de Verdun in 1236
Exhibits a twin D-shaped gatehouseHas one projecting tower
Incorporates a large hall
Castleroche, Co. LouthView of Hall and Gatehouse from the south-eastGatehouses
Almost all late-12th and early to mid-13th century castles have elaborate gatehouses, generally these are twin-toweredIn some cases the main keep or hall is located at some distance from the gatehouse (e.g. Carrickfergus) in others it is located immediately behind the gatehouse (e.g. Castleroche)Gatehouses
By the mid-13th century the defences of castles become more developed and the focus moves from the keeps to the curtain walls and the gate-towers
Examples built at this time are shown here
Later Medieval Castles
Some castles can be identified that were built in the 14th century
They see further evolutions away from the protected keep with limited gateways features and the use of towers to provide flanking fire for defence
This is Clonmore, Carlow
Hall houses
A group of castles built from the early 13th century through to the 14th centuryLittle or no evidence for outer defences or gatehouses
Hall houses, polygonal castles and Irish stone castlesVarious castles are built in areas outside of Anglo-Norman control in the 13th and 14th century
Irish Castles
Castles built by the Irish, rather than Anglo-Norman lords
Mainly ditched and walled enclosures sometimes with gatehouses
Tower houses
In 1429, a statute of Henry VI decreed that a grant of £10 would be available to every man in the Pale who built a castle of stone by 1439
This should measure 20 ft by 16 ft and 40 ft highThis appears to be the origin of tower houses
True tower houses continued to be built into the 16th century and 17th century in various forms
They may have a surrounding bawn or defended enclosure
They incorporate features such as helical (spiral) staircases and intra-mural passages
Bagenal’s Castle, NewryBuilt by Nicholas Bagenal in 1570s
Plans survive in Crown Records Office in Kew London
Bagenals Castle, Newry
Excavation showed the 1570s ground plan to have a number of inaccuracies.
The real ground plan suggests a tower house like Ballug, Roodstown or Termonfeckin in Louth
Ecclesiastical Architecture
Cathedrals
Churches
Abbeys and other monastic centres
Pre-Norman Irish architecture is replaced by classical styles such as Romanesque and Gothic Romanesque
Applied to various architectural devices and types of artDetail from Clonfert cathedral (3rd quarter of 12th century)
RomanesqueWest door of Clonfert CathedralCurving arch of the door is typical of Romanesque
Romanesque: Cormacs Chapel (Cashel)Dates to 1125-1150One of the best examples of Romanesque architecture in Ireland
Cormacs Chapel
Irish Romanesque
The first Romanesque buildings: Cormac's Chapel at Cashel (1127–34) features square towers, doorways in recessed orders, barrel and ribbed vaults, quarried stone, and architectural sculpture. Cormac's chapel boasts one of the finest looking corbelled roof which is constructed of ashlar, cut from local sandstone. Although impressive in appearance, the structural components were not as well integrated as in some of the earlier examples: the barrel vault was too low to support the roof, which instead had to be reinforced by a pointed vault immediately under the external masonry.
A more radical innovation occurred here with the addition of square towers incorporated at the east end of the nave, presenting a new architectural model for the Irish church. Paired towers, flanking the chancel or the apse, were a feature of many churches within the German Empire, and it has long been assumed that those at Cashel were derived from St James at Regensburg or one of the other Schöttenkirchen. But eastern towers and turrets were also a feature of Norman churches in England, so the background may be closer to home.But this particular architectural formula was not repeated elsewhere in Ireland. Cormac’s ChapelIn addition, Cormac's Chapel was among the first Irish buildings to be embellished with sculpture, and as such is thought to mark the birth of Hiberno-Romanesque, providing an initial injection of foreign techniques, which within a few years were integrated into Irish church-building.
Cormac’s ChapelThe prominence given in the annals to the consecration of Cormac's Chapel in 1134 suggests that the novelties of the building were widely appreciated, which makes it curious that the architecture did not have a greater influence. The artistic splendor was enhanced by painted decoration, remnants of which survive in the chancel, where human figures, one wearing a crown, can be discerned on the vault. The scheme was carried out with costly materials, which included lapis lazulae, vermilion and gold leaf. The purpose of so much expenditure on one relatively small building has never been satisfactorily established.
Cormac’s Chapel
The larger and more elaborate buildings meant that Irish churches could allow the same liturgical practices as other European churches
This would bring Ireland into line with European practice
Christchurch, Dublin
Begun in 1030, earliest surviving fabric really dates from after 1180
Christchurch
Romanesque plan from crypt Compare it to St. Sernin
Gothic
Some ecclesiastical architecture in Ireland is in the Gothic style well known from Britain and FranceThis is St. Patricks Cathedral, Dublin
Christchurch, Dublin
Begun in 1030, earliest surviving fabric really dates from after 1180
Gothic: Early English1190-1250
Plain lancet windows and arches
Protruding buttresses.
Plate tracery
Circular, moulded capitals.
Pointed, moulded arches.
Capitals with stiff-leaf and crockets E.g. Salisbury
Gothic: Geometric and Decorated
1250-1350
Geometric shapes emerge in Early English styles from 1250-1290 (e.g. Romsey)
Then intersecting tracery appears in middle windows
This becomes more and more elaborate during the early 14th century (e.g. Exeter)
Gothic: Perpendicular
1330-1550
Verticals from top to bottom of windows, horizontal transoms (e.g. Winchester Cathedral shown here)Octagonal piers
Abbeys
The Cistercian introduce a specific architectural plan to Irish monastic centres, such as Mellifont
Other Orders which appear include the Dominicans and Franciscans
Cistercian Abbey (Jerpoint, Co. Kilkenny)
Cistercian Abbeys are laid out on a regular format with each building given a prescribed space within the layout
Franciscan Friary, Quin, Co. Clare
Quin FriaryFranciscans were not as rich as the Cistercians
Metals, trade and hoards in prehistory
Bronze collars from Denmark
Independent copper metallurgy?
Recognising Ores
Gold sourcing…
Early Irish goldwork appears to be derived from alluvial gold.
This is often collected by either place-mining or panning a process where the heavier density of the gold makes it sink and other soil and sediment is washed away.
Gold Sources?
Ireland continued to exploit local gold throughout the Bronze Age.
There is a synchronous change of source at the MBA-LBA transition (1150 BC).
Earlier gold was rarely re-cycled.
Chapman et al 2006 Applied Geochemistry Vol 21, 859-1092
Copper Ores
Copper mining: Ross Island 2400-2000 BC
Copper mining tools
Mount Gabriel (Cork), copper mines
Great Orme, copper mines (Wales)
Changes in Metalworking
Early Bronze Age
Simple one piece moulds
Changes in Metalworking
By the end of the Early Bronze Age
Two-piece (bi-valve) moulds in use
Metalworking Techniques in the Late Bronze Age
Some one-piece moulds and bi-valve, or two-piece, moulds continue in use
This is eventually followed by lost-wax casting in the Late Bronze Age
A model of the object to be cast is made in wax
This is encased in clay with vents and a gate left
This is heated the wax melts away via the vents
The molten bronze is poured through the gate and the mold is broken to remove the finished piece
Late Bronze Age Metalworking: Moulds (Dun Aonghusa, Inis Mór)
Casting Using Lost Wax Method
‘Kurd’ buckets
3. Cape Castle, Antrim
4. Magilligan, Derry
‘Kurd’ buckets
Hosszúpályi (Hungary)
Lunulae
Two main types:
Classical and Unaccomplished – also Provincial Type (found in France and Britain)
Tamlaght Hoard, Co. Armagh
At least two sheet bronze bowls, one placed inside the other
A sword of Irish (possibly a Type 3)
Dates to the 11th century BC
Fuchsstadt-Type vessels
Fuchsstadt-Type vessel from Austria
Fuchsstadt-Type vessels
Jenisovice Type vessel From Bjergsted, Skippinge, Denmark
Jenišovice-Type vessels
Pins and Bracelets Ballytegan Hoard, Co. Laois
Contain sunflower pins (1, 2 and 4 below)
Disc-headed pins
(No. 3 below)
Triple-bracelet
See Danish sunflower pin below.
Bronze collars from Denmark
Raftery’s proposed development of gorgets
Sintra Collar, Portugal
Gold hats? (Probably bowls)
Gold ‘cones’
Aventon Berlin Ezelsdorf Schifferstadt
Aventon Berlin Ezelsdorf Schifferstadt
Rathgall, Co. Wicklow
Exotic finds are often associated with the major hillforts (date to around 1200 BC).
Finds have parallels in the southern Alpine area and Germany.
Shields: U-notched Type
Cloonlara, Co. Mayo
Wooden mould
Oak
48 cm diameter
Shields: U-notched Type
Churchfield, Co. Mayo
Wooden mould
Alder
Cut-out handle in rear
Shields: V-notched Type
Clonbrin, Co. Longford
Leather
50 cm in diameter
Engravings of V-notched shields
A group of monuments in Spain carry engraved scenes showing various weapons and shields. V-notched shields are prominent.
They are mostly in Extremadura
Appear to date to between 9th and 7th centuries BC.
Example on the right is from Solana de Cabañas
Brozas
V-notched shield on engraved 7th-8th century BC slab from Brozas, Cáceres in Spain
Cabeza de Buey
V-notched shields on engraved 7th-9th century BC slab from Cabeza de Buey (just south of Brozas)
Out of the distant past
Bronze and gold hoards:
Votive deposits or smiths’ stores?
Pins and Bracelets Ballytegan Hoard, Co. Laois
Contain sunflower pins (1, 2 and 4 below)
Disc-headed pins
(No. 3 below)
Triple-bracelet
Tamlaght
Tamlaght
Tamlaght
Killymoon, Co. Tyrone
Gold hoard found during excavation
Dowris Hoard
Found during peat cutting in Offaly in the 1820s. Original number of objects is unknown.
Dowris Hoard
Buckets and Cauldrons
Cauldrons: Type A
Example from Dowris, Co. Offaly.
Horns
Cast bronze horns
Played using circular breathing
Two main types:
Horns: Class 1
Generally cast as a single piece
Mainly found in the north-east
Horns: Class 2
Occasionally manufactured in a number of sections
Mainly found in the south-west
Distribution of Horns
Dowris is unusual in that both types are represented in the hoard.
Dowris Hoard
Weapons include both swords and spearheads
No. 5 in drawing is a chape (part of a scabbard)
Crotals
Purpose unknown (the term crotal denotes a small bell with an enclosed clapper)
39 from Dowris, one from Co. Antrim
Dowris hoard
Other finds include:
Axes
Chisels
Gouges
Socketed knives
Great Clare Gold Find
Gold found during railway building in 1854 near Mooghaun
Hoard was dispersed after find
Great Clare Gold Find
Some pieces are still being discovered
Great Clare Gold Find
a) 138 penannular bracelets with solid, evenly expanded, terminals. b) 3 penannular bracelets with evenly expanded hollowed terminals. c) 6 gold collars. d) 2 lock-rings. e) 2 penannular neck-rings. f) 3 ingots. g) 2 torcs.
Booleybrien, Co. Clare
Hoards
Hoards
Burton Hoard (Wales)
Single finds LBA
Weapons
Gold ornaments
Weapons
Gold ornaments
Newport, Co. Mayo
Independent copper metallurgy?
Recognising Ores
Gold sourcing…
Early Irish goldwork appears to be derived from alluvial gold.
This is often collected by either place-mining or panning a process where the heavier density of the gold makes it sink and other soil and sediment is washed away.
Gold Sources?
Ireland continued to exploit local gold throughout the Bronze Age.
There is a synchronous change of source at the MBA-LBA transition (1150 BC).
Earlier gold was rarely re-cycled.
Chapman et al 2006 Applied Geochemistry Vol 21, 859-1092
Copper Ores
Copper mining: Ross Island 2400-2000 BC
Copper mining tools
Mount Gabriel (Cork), copper mines
Great Orme, copper mines (Wales)
Changes in Metalworking
Early Bronze Age
Simple one piece moulds
Changes in Metalworking
By the end of the Early Bronze Age
Two-piece (bi-valve) moulds in use
Metalworking Techniques in the Late Bronze Age
Some one-piece moulds and bi-valve, or two-piece, moulds continue in use
This is eventually followed by lost-wax casting in the Late Bronze Age
A model of the object to be cast is made in wax
This is encased in clay with vents and a gate left
This is heated the wax melts away via the vents
The molten bronze is poured through the gate and the mold is broken to remove the finished piece
Late Bronze Age Metalworking: Moulds (Dun Aonghusa, Inis Mór)
Casting Using Lost Wax Method
‘Kurd’ buckets
3. Cape Castle, Antrim
4. Magilligan, Derry
‘Kurd’ buckets
Hosszúpályi (Hungary)
Lunulae
Two main types:
Classical and Unaccomplished – also Provincial Type (found in France and Britain)
Tamlaght Hoard, Co. Armagh
At least two sheet bronze bowls, one placed inside the other
A sword of Irish (possibly a Type 3)
Dates to the 11th century BC
Fuchsstadt-Type vessels
Fuchsstadt-Type vessel from Austria
Fuchsstadt-Type vessels
Jenisovice Type vessel From Bjergsted, Skippinge, Denmark
Jenišovice-Type vessels
Pins and Bracelets Ballytegan Hoard, Co. Laois
Contain sunflower pins (1, 2 and 4 below)
Disc-headed pins
(No. 3 below)
Triple-bracelet
See Danish sunflower pin below.
Bronze collars from Denmark
Raftery’s proposed development of gorgets
Sintra Collar, Portugal
Gold hats? (Probably bowls)
Gold ‘cones’
Aventon Berlin Ezelsdorf Schifferstadt
Aventon Berlin Ezelsdorf Schifferstadt
Rathgall, Co. Wicklow
Exotic finds are often associated with the major hillforts (date to around 1200 BC).
Finds have parallels in the southern Alpine area and Germany.
Shields: U-notched Type
Cloonlara, Co. Mayo
Wooden mould
Oak
48 cm diameter
Shields: U-notched Type
Churchfield, Co. Mayo
Wooden mould
Alder
Cut-out handle in rear
Shields: V-notched Type
Clonbrin, Co. Longford
Leather
50 cm in diameter
Engravings of V-notched shields
A group of monuments in Spain carry engraved scenes showing various weapons and shields. V-notched shields are prominent.
They are mostly in Extremadura
Appear to date to between 9th and 7th centuries BC.
Example on the right is from Solana de Cabañas
Brozas
V-notched shield on engraved 7th-8th century BC slab from Brozas, Cáceres in Spain
Cabeza de Buey
V-notched shields on engraved 7th-9th century BC slab from Cabeza de Buey (just south of Brozas)
Out of the distant past
Bronze and gold hoards:
Votive deposits or smiths’ stores?
Pins and Bracelets Ballytegan Hoard, Co. Laois
Contain sunflower pins (1, 2 and 4 below)
Disc-headed pins
(No. 3 below)
Triple-bracelet
Tamlaght
Tamlaght
Tamlaght
Killymoon, Co. Tyrone
Gold hoard found during excavation
Dowris Hoard
Found during peat cutting in Offaly in the 1820s. Original number of objects is unknown.
Dowris Hoard
Buckets and Cauldrons
Cauldrons: Type A
Example from Dowris, Co. Offaly.
Horns
Cast bronze horns
Played using circular breathing
Two main types:
Horns: Class 1
Generally cast as a single piece
Mainly found in the north-east
Horns: Class 2
Occasionally manufactured in a number of sections
Mainly found in the south-west
Distribution of Horns
Dowris is unusual in that both types are represented in the hoard.
Dowris Hoard
Weapons include both swords and spearheads
No. 5 in drawing is a chape (part of a scabbard)
Crotals
Purpose unknown (the term crotal denotes a small bell with an enclosed clapper)
39 from Dowris, one from Co. Antrim
Dowris hoard
Other finds include:
Axes
Chisels
Gouges
Socketed knives
Great Clare Gold Find
Gold found during railway building in 1854 near Mooghaun
Hoard was dispersed after find
Great Clare Gold Find
Some pieces are still being discovered
Great Clare Gold Find
a) 138 penannular bracelets with solid, evenly expanded, terminals. b) 3 penannular bracelets with evenly expanded hollowed terminals. c) 6 gold collars. d) 2 lock-rings. e) 2 penannular neck-rings. f) 3 ingots. g) 2 torcs.
Booleybrien, Co. Clare
Hoards
Hoards
Burton Hoard (Wales)
Single finds LBA
Weapons
Gold ornaments
Weapons
Gold ornaments
Newport, Co. Mayo
Megalithic Tombs, Mounds and Cairns
Megalithic Tombs
Mounds, Cairns, Barrows
Megalithic Tombs
•Megalithic Tombs are those stone monuments erected during prehistory including Court Tombs, Portal Tombs, Passage Tombs, Linkardstown Cists, Wedge Tombs.
•We should also include Stone Circles with this group.
•While we often use the term ‘tomb’ to describe them, the evidence from them suggest more complex uses than simply burial as they seem to have been the focus for other activities and ceremonies.
Megalithic Terms
•Orthostat
•Kerb
•Lintel
•Capstone
Megalithic Tombs
•Broadly speaking, the Passage Tombs, Court Tombs and Portal Tombs are Neolithic in date.
•The Wedge Tombs are mainly Bronze Age in date. Their distribution is also significantly different.
Court Tombs
•Also known as Court Graves, Horned Cairns
•390 examples are known (eg Creggandevesky, in Co Tyrone)
•Various types of court tomb have been identified:
–Dual Court Tombs
–Central Court Tombs
–Transeptal Court Tombs
Court Tombs: Layout
•Divided into two basic parts:
–a long chamber which contains smaller compartments in which remains were deposited
–a large open-space or court at the entrance to the chamber
•Court marked by large standing stones.
•Chamber is roofed by a stone mound which tapered toward the back.
Court Tombs – Distribution Map
Court Tombs - Distribution
•Distribution also reflected in tomb styles.
•In the north-east there is a preference for simple tombs with open crescent shaped courts.
•Elaborate monuments with more complex courts and found in the north-west
Court Tombs – Distribution Map
Note the preference for Central and Full Court tombs in the west
Court Tombs – Full Court Tombs
•Creevykeel, Co. Sligo
Court Tombs – Dual Court Tombs
•Audleystown, Co. Down
•Cohaw, Co. Cavan
Court Tombs - Transeptal
•Behy, Co. Mayo
Court Tombs - Construction
•Where chambers are present, 70% of tombs have less than 2 compartments.
•The cairn is generally retained by a revetment of orthostats
•Court is usually defined by orthostats and occasionally dry-walling
•Chambers can be separated into compartments by jamb-stones and sill-stones
Court Tombs – Finds
•Tombs show a preference in alignment – open court tombs often face between north-east and south-east
•Burnt and unburnt bones have been found in court tombs, but cremation appears to be more common
•Range of pottery and flint often found
–Carinated Bowls, Decoarted Bowls and Bipartite Bowls
–Flint arrowheads, scrapers and knives
Court Tombs - Date
•Dated examples may begin as early as 4000 BC
•Most dated examples suggest construction and use during the period between 3750 BC and 3250 BC
Court Tombs – Houses of the Dead
•One court tomb, at Ballyglass, Co. Mayo, was found to overlie a Neolithic house.
•Some people see Court Tombs as stone versions of contemporary houses, but built as houses of the dead rather than the living.
Portal Tombs
•Also known as Dolmens, Trigaliths, Diarmuid and Grainne’s Bed, Druidical Altars
•174 examples are known
•Most portal tombs are of a simple type although occasional variations have been identified but these are very rare:
–Dual Portal Tombs (e.g. Ballyrenan, Co. Tyrone)
Portal Tombs: Layout
•Usually formed of:
–a rectangular chamber
–Two stones mark either side of the entrance (the portal stones)
–A single large capstone for the roof (occasionally two stones are present)
–Largest capstone is Brownshill in Carlow (100 tons)
•There is often a cairn present, although this is not always the case.
Portal Tombs – Distribution Map
Note large gaps across areas of the midlands, west, south-west and north-east
Portal Tombs - Features
•Dual Portal Tomb at Ballyrenan, Co. Tyrone
•Note blocking stone at front of tomb - Drumanone, Co. Roscommon
Portal Tombs – Finds
•Tombs show no preference in alignment – often they roughly face east or uphill
•Many have stream-side or valley bottom locations
•Mainly burnt bones have been found in portal tombs
•Range of finds from portal tombs includes:
–Carinated Bowls and Bipartite Bowls
–Flint arrowheads, scrapers and knives
–Stone axes
–Beads
Portal Tombs - Date
•Dates seem to be very similar to Court Tombs although the picture isn’t very clear
•Dated examples begin as early as 4000 BC
•Most dated examples suggest use during the period between 3750 BC and 3250 BC
Passage Tombs
•Also known as Passage Graves, Druids Stones
•230 examples are known
•Several basic types of passage tombs have been identified:
–Simple passage tombs
–Cruciform passage tombs
Passage Tombs: Layout
•Usually formed of:
–a circular cairn or kerb circle
–A chamber within the cairn or kerb circle
–A passage providing access to the central chamber
Passage Tombs
•Newgrange, Co. Meath
The Winter Solstice
•Today it is best known for its association with the winter solstice.
•This was only re-discovered during the excavations.
Passage Tombs
•Entrance with decorated stone and famous light box.
Passage Tombs – Distribution Map
•Note gaps in distribution in most of the midlands, south-west and west.
•Also note cemeteries.
Passage Tombs – Simple Passage Tombs
Ballintoy, Co. Antri
Baltinglass Hill, Co. Wicklow
Passage Tombs – Simple Passage Tombs
•Carrowmore, Tomb 7, Co. Sligo
Passage Tombs – Cruciform Tombs
•Cruciform passage tomb at Knowth in Co. Meath
•Note the smaller ‘satellite’ tombs surrounding the main tomb
Passage Tombs - Distribution
•Passage tombs are found singly and in groups (cemeteries)
•Main passage tomb cemeteries are in the Boyne valley (Meath), Loughcrew (Meath)l, Carrowkeel (Sligo), Carrowmore (Sligo)
•A cemetery is usually defined as a group of more than 5
Passage Tombs – Finds
•Tombs often seem to be aligned towards significant astronomies such as the winter solstice
•Mainly burnt bones have been found in passage tombs
•Large stone basins are known
•Range of finds from passage tombs includes:
–Carrowkeel Ware pottery
–Beads, pendants, bone and antler pins
–Stone Balls
Passage Tombs - Date
•Some dated examples begin as early as 5500 BC – this is often challenged
•Most dated examples suggest use during the period after 3500 BC and before 2850 BC
•The great passage tombs like Knowth and Newgrange were built between 3250 BC and 2950 BC.
Wedge Tombs
•Also known as Gallery Graves
•505 examples are known
•Two basic types of wedge tombs have been identified:
–Short gallery (Parknabinnia, Co. Clare)
–Long gallery (Ballyedmonduff, Co. Dublin)
Wedge Tombs: Layout
•Usually formed of:
–A gallery
–An outer revetment
–Generally roofed with large stones decreasing in size from front to rear
Wedge Tombs – Distribution Map
Note that wedge tombs do not observe the northern preference of other megalithic tombs
Wedge Tombs – Finds
•Tombs show no preference in alignment – often they roughly face west
•Burnt and unburnt bones have been found in wedge tombs
•Range of finds from wedge tombs is very limited and includes:
–Beaker Pottery
–Barbed and Tanged arrowheads
Wedge Tombs - Date
•Dated examples may start as early as 3000 BC, but it seems more likely most are built after around 2600 BC.
•Most dated examples suggest construction and use during the period between 2600 BC and 1400 BC
•It is possible that some of the stone circles built in the south-west are a late variant style of Wedge Tomb.
Stone Circles: Drombeg, Co. Cork
•Radiocarbon dated to the Late Bronze Age
Linkardstown Cists
•Small group of tombs known which are recognised as a distinct group of individual burials
•Named after first excavated example at Linkardstown in Co. Carlow
•Sites have a central burial chamber located in the centre of a cairn or mound which is not accessed via a passage
•Most dated examples suggest use during the period between 3600 BC and 3300 BC
Linkardstown Cists
•Jerpoint West, Co. Kilkenny showing typical form of central burial chamber: i.e. a polygonal stone cist
•Baunogenasraid, Carlow
Linkardstown Cists
•A group of definite Linkardstown-type burials are known
•Some related ‘individual’ Neolithic burials are also known and considered to be related
Linkardstown Cists – Finds
•Mainly unburnt bones have been found in Linkardstown Cists, mainly of adult males
•Range of finds from Linkardstown Cists includes:
–Bipartite Bowls
Linkardstown Cists
•Poulawack, Co. Clare
•Linkardstown Cist phases – central burial cists covered by a cairn of stones and encircled by a kerb
Linkardstown Cists
•Poulawack, Co. Clare – Typical Linkardstown Cist – not recognisable prior to excavation
Linkardstown Cists
•Poulawack, Co. Clare
•Excavation revealed multiple phases of use
Ballintruer More, Co Wicklow
Clogher Lower (Co. Roscommon)
•Typical mound – Bronze Age in date.
•Central burial sealed by cairn/earthen mound.
Clogher Lower (Co. Roscommon)
Ballinagore (Co. Wicklow)
Knockast, Co. Westmeath
Individual Burial
•CISTS
Segmented Cist
Laughanstown, Co. Dublin
Barrows
•A number of types of burial monument are defined by the presence of a circular ditch
•These might enclose a central burial or include numerous burials
Cherrywood,Co Dublin:Typical Barrow
After excavation – viewed from the north.
Late Bronze Age burial and pit F77
Child burial
Barrow with capping and cremation deposits removed and pit F77 exposed (viewed from north-west)
Pit F77 with circle of stones and cattle teeth in situ
Plan showing location of cremation deposits overlying capping and within ditch fill (see key).
Viewed from the north-west. This is the barrow with the cremated ditch deposits visible and the clay capping in situ.
Beads from cremations with ditch fill
Mounds, Cairns, Barrows
Megalithic Tombs
•Megalithic Tombs are those stone monuments erected during prehistory including Court Tombs, Portal Tombs, Passage Tombs, Linkardstown Cists, Wedge Tombs.
•We should also include Stone Circles with this group.
•While we often use the term ‘tomb’ to describe them, the evidence from them suggest more complex uses than simply burial as they seem to have been the focus for other activities and ceremonies.
Megalithic Terms
•Orthostat
•Kerb
•Lintel
•Capstone
Megalithic Tombs
•Broadly speaking, the Passage Tombs, Court Tombs and Portal Tombs are Neolithic in date.
•The Wedge Tombs are mainly Bronze Age in date. Their distribution is also significantly different.
Court Tombs
•Also known as Court Graves, Horned Cairns
•390 examples are known (eg Creggandevesky, in Co Tyrone)
•Various types of court tomb have been identified:
–Dual Court Tombs
–Central Court Tombs
–Transeptal Court Tombs
Court Tombs: Layout
•Divided into two basic parts:
–a long chamber which contains smaller compartments in which remains were deposited
–a large open-space or court at the entrance to the chamber
•Court marked by large standing stones.
•Chamber is roofed by a stone mound which tapered toward the back.
Court Tombs – Distribution Map
Court Tombs - Distribution
•Distribution also reflected in tomb styles.
•In the north-east there is a preference for simple tombs with open crescent shaped courts.
•Elaborate monuments with more complex courts and found in the north-west
Court Tombs – Distribution Map
Note the preference for Central and Full Court tombs in the west
Court Tombs – Full Court Tombs
•Creevykeel, Co. Sligo
Court Tombs – Dual Court Tombs
•Audleystown, Co. Down
•Cohaw, Co. Cavan
Court Tombs - Transeptal
•Behy, Co. Mayo
Court Tombs - Construction
•Where chambers are present, 70% of tombs have less than 2 compartments.
•The cairn is generally retained by a revetment of orthostats
•Court is usually defined by orthostats and occasionally dry-walling
•Chambers can be separated into compartments by jamb-stones and sill-stones
Court Tombs – Finds
•Tombs show a preference in alignment – open court tombs often face between north-east and south-east
•Burnt and unburnt bones have been found in court tombs, but cremation appears to be more common
•Range of pottery and flint often found
–Carinated Bowls, Decoarted Bowls and Bipartite Bowls
–Flint arrowheads, scrapers and knives
Court Tombs - Date
•Dated examples may begin as early as 4000 BC
•Most dated examples suggest construction and use during the period between 3750 BC and 3250 BC
Court Tombs – Houses of the Dead
•One court tomb, at Ballyglass, Co. Mayo, was found to overlie a Neolithic house.
•Some people see Court Tombs as stone versions of contemporary houses, but built as houses of the dead rather than the living.
Portal Tombs
•Also known as Dolmens, Trigaliths, Diarmuid and Grainne’s Bed, Druidical Altars
•174 examples are known
•Most portal tombs are of a simple type although occasional variations have been identified but these are very rare:
–Dual Portal Tombs (e.g. Ballyrenan, Co. Tyrone)
Portal Tombs: Layout
•Usually formed of:
–a rectangular chamber
–Two stones mark either side of the entrance (the portal stones)
–A single large capstone for the roof (occasionally two stones are present)
–Largest capstone is Brownshill in Carlow (100 tons)
•There is often a cairn present, although this is not always the case.
Portal Tombs – Distribution Map
Note large gaps across areas of the midlands, west, south-west and north-east
Portal Tombs - Features
•Dual Portal Tomb at Ballyrenan, Co. Tyrone
•Note blocking stone at front of tomb - Drumanone, Co. Roscommon
Portal Tombs – Finds
•Tombs show no preference in alignment – often they roughly face east or uphill
•Many have stream-side or valley bottom locations
•Mainly burnt bones have been found in portal tombs
•Range of finds from portal tombs includes:
–Carinated Bowls and Bipartite Bowls
–Flint arrowheads, scrapers and knives
–Stone axes
–Beads
Portal Tombs - Date
•Dates seem to be very similar to Court Tombs although the picture isn’t very clear
•Dated examples begin as early as 4000 BC
•Most dated examples suggest use during the period between 3750 BC and 3250 BC
Passage Tombs
•Also known as Passage Graves, Druids Stones
•230 examples are known
•Several basic types of passage tombs have been identified:
–Simple passage tombs
–Cruciform passage tombs
Passage Tombs: Layout
•Usually formed of:
–a circular cairn or kerb circle
–A chamber within the cairn or kerb circle
–A passage providing access to the central chamber
Passage Tombs
•Newgrange, Co. Meath
The Winter Solstice
•Today it is best known for its association with the winter solstice.
•This was only re-discovered during the excavations.
Passage Tombs
•Entrance with decorated stone and famous light box.
Passage Tombs – Distribution Map
•Note gaps in distribution in most of the midlands, south-west and west.
•Also note cemeteries.
Passage Tombs – Simple Passage Tombs
Ballintoy, Co. Antri
Baltinglass Hill, Co. Wicklow
Passage Tombs – Simple Passage Tombs
•Carrowmore, Tomb 7, Co. Sligo
Passage Tombs – Cruciform Tombs
•Cruciform passage tomb at Knowth in Co. Meath
•Note the smaller ‘satellite’ tombs surrounding the main tomb
Passage Tombs - Distribution
•Passage tombs are found singly and in groups (cemeteries)
•Main passage tomb cemeteries are in the Boyne valley (Meath), Loughcrew (Meath)l, Carrowkeel (Sligo), Carrowmore (Sligo)
•A cemetery is usually defined as a group of more than 5
Passage Tombs – Finds
•Tombs often seem to be aligned towards significant astronomies such as the winter solstice
•Mainly burnt bones have been found in passage tombs
•Large stone basins are known
•Range of finds from passage tombs includes:
–Carrowkeel Ware pottery
–Beads, pendants, bone and antler pins
–Stone Balls
Passage Tombs - Date
•Some dated examples begin as early as 5500 BC – this is often challenged
•Most dated examples suggest use during the period after 3500 BC and before 2850 BC
•The great passage tombs like Knowth and Newgrange were built between 3250 BC and 2950 BC.
Wedge Tombs
•Also known as Gallery Graves
•505 examples are known
•Two basic types of wedge tombs have been identified:
–Short gallery (Parknabinnia, Co. Clare)
–Long gallery (Ballyedmonduff, Co. Dublin)
Wedge Tombs: Layout
•Usually formed of:
–A gallery
–An outer revetment
–Generally roofed with large stones decreasing in size from front to rear
Wedge Tombs – Distribution Map
Note that wedge tombs do not observe the northern preference of other megalithic tombs
Wedge Tombs – Finds
•Tombs show no preference in alignment – often they roughly face west
•Burnt and unburnt bones have been found in wedge tombs
•Range of finds from wedge tombs is very limited and includes:
–Beaker Pottery
–Barbed and Tanged arrowheads
Wedge Tombs - Date
•Dated examples may start as early as 3000 BC, but it seems more likely most are built after around 2600 BC.
•Most dated examples suggest construction and use during the period between 2600 BC and 1400 BC
•It is possible that some of the stone circles built in the south-west are a late variant style of Wedge Tomb.
Stone Circles: Drombeg, Co. Cork
•Radiocarbon dated to the Late Bronze Age
Linkardstown Cists
•Small group of tombs known which are recognised as a distinct group of individual burials
•Named after first excavated example at Linkardstown in Co. Carlow
•Sites have a central burial chamber located in the centre of a cairn or mound which is not accessed via a passage
•Most dated examples suggest use during the period between 3600 BC and 3300 BC
Linkardstown Cists
•Jerpoint West, Co. Kilkenny showing typical form of central burial chamber: i.e. a polygonal stone cist
•Baunogenasraid, Carlow
Linkardstown Cists
•A group of definite Linkardstown-type burials are known
•Some related ‘individual’ Neolithic burials are also known and considered to be related
Linkardstown Cists – Finds
•Mainly unburnt bones have been found in Linkardstown Cists, mainly of adult males
•Range of finds from Linkardstown Cists includes:
–Bipartite Bowls
Linkardstown Cists
•Poulawack, Co. Clare
•Linkardstown Cist phases – central burial cists covered by a cairn of stones and encircled by a kerb
Linkardstown Cists
•Poulawack, Co. Clare – Typical Linkardstown Cist – not recognisable prior to excavation
Linkardstown Cists
•Poulawack, Co. Clare
•Excavation revealed multiple phases of use
Ballintruer More, Co Wicklow
Clogher Lower (Co. Roscommon)
•Typical mound – Bronze Age in date.
•Central burial sealed by cairn/earthen mound.
Clogher Lower (Co. Roscommon)
Ballinagore (Co. Wicklow)
Knockast, Co. Westmeath
Individual Burial
•CISTS
Segmented Cist
Laughanstown, Co. Dublin
Barrows
•A number of types of burial monument are defined by the presence of a circular ditch
•These might enclose a central burial or include numerous burials
Cherrywood,Co Dublin:Typical Barrow
After excavation – viewed from the north.
Late Bronze Age burial and pit F77
Child burial
Barrow with capping and cremation deposits removed and pit F77 exposed (viewed from north-west)
Pit F77 with circle of stones and cattle teeth in situ
Plan showing location of cremation deposits overlying capping and within ditch fill (see key).
Viewed from the north-west. This is the barrow with the cremated ditch deposits visible and the clay capping in situ.
Beads from cremations with ditch fill
Stone Circles and Rock Art
Stones Circles, Standing Stones, Alignments, Rock Art…
Stone Circles
•There are various types of stone circle in Ireland:
–Great Circles
–Embanked Circles
–Northern-type(s)
–Multiple Stone Circles
–Recumbent Stone Circles
–Stone Circles with Boulder burials
–Five Posters
–Four Posters
Stone Circles - Terminology
Great Circles: Newgrange, Co. Meath
•The Great Circle at Newgrange
Newgrange – The Great Circle
Newgrange – The Great Circle
•There are 12 surviving standing stones around the mound of Newgrange out of a possible original 35 to 38 orthostats.
•The Great Circle has an average diameter of 103.6m (340 ft), which is larger than the diameter of Stonehenge, the outer bank of which is 97.5m (320 ft).
•The stones consist of greywacke, which is a type of sandstone, as well as limestone, granite and other igneous rocks and stand at a height of approximately 2 metres each
Newgrange, Co. Meath
•Stones in front of the tomb’s entrance.
Embanked Circles - Beltany, Co. Donegal
•Stones stand on a raised bank.
Embanked Circles - Beltany, Co. Donegal
•The ring is 44.2m (145ft) in diameter and still contains 64 stones, though originally there were eighty or more
Embanked Circles - Beltany, Co. Donegal
•Note the entrance in the top slide (bottom left of the circle).
•This is also visible in the bottom photo.
Embanked Stone Circle:Athgreaney, The Pipers Stones, Co. Wicklow
Embanked Stone Circle:Castleruddery, Co. Wicklow
These ‘embanked’ stone circles are very similar to henge monuments and appear to be of the same sort of date (i.e. Late Neolithic or Early Bronze Age).
Embanked Stone Circle:Grange, Co. Limerick
•Excavated in the 1940s.
•Appears to date to the Bronze Age
Embanked Stone Circle:Grange, Co. Limerick
•Embanked stone circles show many of the symmetrical features of henge monuments.
Ballynahatty, Co. Down (Henge)
Northern Type(s)
•While a lot of stone circles are known from the northern half of Ireland – the various types have not been properly studied.
•There are a number of early circles which may be embanked circles (other than Beltany)
•The remainder are best described individually!
Similar to Breton circles called Fer-aux-chevaux
Stonehenge – Bluestone phase
Ballynoe, Co. Down
Ballynoe, Co. Down
Copney, Co. Tyrone
Copney: Circle A
Beaghmore: Site B
Along alignment towards B
Beaghmore: Site D
Beaghmore: Site E
Drumskinny, Co. Fermanagh
Four-Poster: Mullaghmore, Co. Down
•Four-Poster Circle
•Excavation produced traces of a cremation in a bucket-shaped pot.
Four-Poster: Mullaghmore, Co. Down
•Mullaghmore as excavated: M marks the spot where the bones of an adult male cremation were recovered, C is where the similar remains of a child were recovered.
Ring ditch 2 burial
•Oval in plan 6 by 5m
•Central burial used twice
•First burial a small cist, contained remains of an adult male 35 years+
•The second burial an adult 35 years +
•Capstone recovered from ditch
•No associated funerary vessel
•Four post holes surrounding central burial
•Dated Cal BC 1380-920
A Four-Poster in a barrow at Loughbrickland, Co. Down
Multiple Stone Circles: Drombeg, Co. Cork
Bohonagh, Co. Cork – Boulder Burial
•Boulder Burial located close to the Stone Circle
Bawngare, Co. Cork
•Boulder burial. Similar to an out of proportion portal tomb.
Kenmare, Stone Circle and Boulder Burial
Five Stone Circle: Oughtihery/Keel Cross, Co. Cork
•Has same symmetry as recumbent and multiple stone circles.
Five Stone Circles
Kealkil, Co. CorkFive Poster with Stone Row in background
Stone Circles: Dating Evidence
•The different types of circle appear to be of different dates.
•The Great Circle at Newgrange and the embanked circles seem to date to around 3000-2000 BC
•Many of the Northern types appear to date to 2000-1500 BC
•The Four-Poster and many of the types from Cork and Kerry date to the Late Bronze Age (1200-800 BC)
Maughanasilly, Co. Cork: Stone Row
Standing Stones: The Rocking Stone, Carrowkeel (Sligo)
Standing Stones:The Longstone, Co. Armagh
Standing Stone:Rathiddy, Co. Louth
Rock Art:Reyfad, Co. Fermanagh
Rock Art: Mullagharoy, Co. Meath
Rock Art:The Witches Stone, Oldbridge, Co. Wicklow
Rock Art:Clearagh, Co. Cork
Kealduff Upper, Co. Kerry
Stone with rock art from pit in the interior ofHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
•Private and public art
Turoe Stone, Co. Galway
Killycluggin, Co. Cavan
Boa Island, Co. Fermanagh
Stone Circles
•There are various types of stone circle in Ireland:
–Great Circles
–Embanked Circles
–Northern-type(s)
–Multiple Stone Circles
–Recumbent Stone Circles
–Stone Circles with Boulder burials
–Five Posters
–Four Posters
Stone Circles - Terminology
Great Circles: Newgrange, Co. Meath
•The Great Circle at Newgrange
Newgrange – The Great Circle
Newgrange – The Great Circle
•There are 12 surviving standing stones around the mound of Newgrange out of a possible original 35 to 38 orthostats.
•The Great Circle has an average diameter of 103.6m (340 ft), which is larger than the diameter of Stonehenge, the outer bank of which is 97.5m (320 ft).
•The stones consist of greywacke, which is a type of sandstone, as well as limestone, granite and other igneous rocks and stand at a height of approximately 2 metres each
Newgrange, Co. Meath
•Stones in front of the tomb’s entrance.
Embanked Circles - Beltany, Co. Donegal
•Stones stand on a raised bank.
Embanked Circles - Beltany, Co. Donegal
•The ring is 44.2m (145ft) in diameter and still contains 64 stones, though originally there were eighty or more
Embanked Circles - Beltany, Co. Donegal
•Note the entrance in the top slide (bottom left of the circle).
•This is also visible in the bottom photo.
Embanked Stone Circle:Athgreaney, The Pipers Stones, Co. Wicklow
Embanked Stone Circle:Castleruddery, Co. Wicklow
These ‘embanked’ stone circles are very similar to henge monuments and appear to be of the same sort of date (i.e. Late Neolithic or Early Bronze Age).
Embanked Stone Circle:Grange, Co. Limerick
•Excavated in the 1940s.
•Appears to date to the Bronze Age
Embanked Stone Circle:Grange, Co. Limerick
•Embanked stone circles show many of the symmetrical features of henge monuments.
Ballynahatty, Co. Down (Henge)
Northern Type(s)
•While a lot of stone circles are known from the northern half of Ireland – the various types have not been properly studied.
•There are a number of early circles which may be embanked circles (other than Beltany)
•The remainder are best described individually!
Similar to Breton circles called Fer-aux-chevaux
Stonehenge – Bluestone phase
Ballynoe, Co. Down
Ballynoe, Co. Down
Copney, Co. Tyrone
Copney: Circle A
Beaghmore: Site B
Along alignment towards B
Beaghmore: Site D
Beaghmore: Site E
Drumskinny, Co. Fermanagh
Four-Poster: Mullaghmore, Co. Down
•Four-Poster Circle
•Excavation produced traces of a cremation in a bucket-shaped pot.
Four-Poster: Mullaghmore, Co. Down
•Mullaghmore as excavated: M marks the spot where the bones of an adult male cremation were recovered, C is where the similar remains of a child were recovered.
Ring ditch 2 burial
•Oval in plan 6 by 5m
•Central burial used twice
•First burial a small cist, contained remains of an adult male 35 years+
•The second burial an adult 35 years +
•Capstone recovered from ditch
•No associated funerary vessel
•Four post holes surrounding central burial
•Dated Cal BC 1380-920
A Four-Poster in a barrow at Loughbrickland, Co. Down
Multiple Stone Circles: Drombeg, Co. Cork
Bohonagh, Co. Cork – Boulder Burial
•Boulder Burial located close to the Stone Circle
Bawngare, Co. Cork
•Boulder burial. Similar to an out of proportion portal tomb.
Kenmare, Stone Circle and Boulder Burial
Five Stone Circle: Oughtihery/Keel Cross, Co. Cork
•Has same symmetry as recumbent and multiple stone circles.
Five Stone Circles
Kealkil, Co. CorkFive Poster with Stone Row in background
Stone Circles: Dating Evidence
•The different types of circle appear to be of different dates.
•The Great Circle at Newgrange and the embanked circles seem to date to around 3000-2000 BC
•Many of the Northern types appear to date to 2000-1500 BC
•The Four-Poster and many of the types from Cork and Kerry date to the Late Bronze Age (1200-800 BC)
Maughanasilly, Co. Cork: Stone Row
Standing Stones: The Rocking Stone, Carrowkeel (Sligo)
Standing Stones:The Longstone, Co. Armagh
Standing Stone:Rathiddy, Co. Louth
Rock Art:Reyfad, Co. Fermanagh
Rock Art: Mullagharoy, Co. Meath
Rock Art:The Witches Stone, Oldbridge, Co. Wicklow
Rock Art:Clearagh, Co. Cork
Kealduff Upper, Co. Kerry
Stone with rock art from pit in the interior ofHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
•Private and public art
Turoe Stone, Co. Galway
Killycluggin, Co. Cavan
Boa Island, Co. Fermanagh
Bronze Age Burial
Individual Burial in Ireland during the Bronze Age
Bronze Age: Chronology
•The Bronze Age begins around 2350 BC in Ireland
•First evidence of use of copper dates to around 2350 BC
•By 2000 BC, copper is being alloyed with tin to make bronze
•Gold appears around this time as well
•Conventionally the Bronze Age is divided into three phases:
–Early (2350 BC to 1700 BC);
–Middle (1700 BC to 1200 BC)
–Late (1200 BC to 700 BC).
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•Individual burials
•Flat axes
•Tanged daggers
•Barbed and tanged arrowheads
•Decorated pottery
•Archers wristguards
•V-perforated buttons
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•Individual burials
•Flat axes
•Tanged daggers
•Barbed and tanged arrowheads
•Decorated pottery
•Archers wristguards
•V-perforated buttons
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•Individual burials
•Flat axes
•Tanged daggers
•Barbed and tanged arrowheads
•Decorated pottery
•Archers wristguards
•V-perforated buttons
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•Individual burials
•Flat axes
•Tanged daggers
•Barbed and tanged arrowheads
•Decorated pottery
•Archers wristguards
•V-perforated buttons
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•Individual burials
•Flat axes
•Decorated Pottery
•Tanged daggers
•Barbed and tanged
arrowheads
•Decorated pottery
•Archers wristguards
•V-perforated buttons
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•Individual burials
•Flat axes
•Decorated Pottery
•Tanged daggers
•Barbed and tanged
arrowheads
•Decorated pottery
•Archers wristguards
•V-perforated buttons
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•GOLD
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•GOLD
Lunulae
Two main types:
Classical (heavily decorated, symmetrical), from Killarney, Co. Kerry
Unaccomplished (i.e. little decoration, asymmetric) as shown here from a hoard of four from Dunfierny in Co. Kildare
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•Halberds
•Battleaxes
Pottery
Bowl Tradition pottery
Vase Tradition pottery
Urns from the Vase Tradition
Collared Urn (Tara, Co. Meath)
Cordoned Urn (Gortlush, Co. Donegal)
Ballinagore (Co. Wicklow)
Finds associated with Collared Urns
Finds associated with Cordoned Urns
Razors found with Cordoned Urns
Faience Beads
Burial Mounds
•Poulawack, Co. Clare
Burial Mounds
•Poulawack, Co. Clare
•Excavation revealed multiple phases of use
Poulawack, Co. Clare
Clogher Lower (Co. Roscommon)
•Typical mound – Bronze Age in date.
•Central burial sealed by cairn/earthen mound.
Clogher Lower (Co. Roscommon)
Ballinagore (Co. Wicklow)
Knockast, Co. Westmeath
Knockast, Co. Westmeath
Individual Burial
•CISTS
Segmented Cist
Laughanstown, Co. Dublin
Ballygalley,County Antrim
Death and Burial in continental Europe
Variation in practice across Europe
Early Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Ireland, Britain, Southern Russia, Southern Scandinavia, Northern Germany, Netherlands, Brittany, East Hungary, West Serbia, Albania
•Flat Inhumation Cemetery: Central Europe, Italy, Central Russia, Northern Russia.
•Cremation Cemetery: Hungary
Early Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Ireland, Britain, Southern Russia, Southern Scandinavia, Northern Germany, Netherlands, Brittany, East Hungary, West Serbia, Albania
•Novaya Kvasnikovka, Volgograd (kurgan 4, burial 5) – 2000 BC
Early Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Novaya Kvasnikovka, Volgograd (kurgan 4, burial 5) – 2000 BC
Early Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
Early Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Ireland, Britain, Southern Russia, Southern Scandinavia, Northern Germany, Netherlands, Brittany, East Hungary, West Serbia, Albania
•Chastiye, Kurgan 20, Lower Don (Russia)– 2000 BC
Kurgan, Aliaga Steppe, Ukraine
Kurgan Vizir, Romania
Normanton Down barrow cemetery
Bush Barrow
Bush Barrow Finds
Golden Barrow
Golden Barrow
Helmsdorf, Germany (EBA)
Leubingen, Germany (EBA)
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Inhumation Cemetery: Rare
•Cremation Cemetery: Rare
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Egtved kommune, Denmark
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Egtved kommune, Denmark
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Egtved kommune, Denmark
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Egtved kommune, Denmark
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Boat-shaped graves (Sweden)
Lugnaro, Sweden
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Toterfout (Netherlands)
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Toterfout (Netherlands)
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Balkans (various)
Late Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe (rare), Parts of Balkans, Steppe zone
•Inhumation Cemetery: Central Europe (rare)
•Cremation Cemetery: Ireland and Britain, Central Europe, Italy, Northern Europe, France, Spain, most of the Balkans
Late Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Inhumation Cemetery: Central Europe (rare)
•Vyčapy-Opatovce
Late Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Cremation Cemetery: Ireland and Britain, Central Europe, Italy, Northern Europe, France, Spain, most of the Balkans
•Vollmarshausen (Germany) - Urnfield Cemetery
Vollmarshausen - Urnfield Cemetery
Cemeteries
•Provide useful data on population health and general demographics.
•Estimated life expectancy in Britain was 31.3 (male) and 29.9 (female). Only 3.3% live to see 50.
•Central Europeans – life expectancy poor beyond 40, but in Iberia it is a different picture.
Thapsos, Sicily
Tholos, Mycenae
The "Agamemnon" MaskGold, from Tomb V at Mycenae Sixteenth century BC
Bronze Age: Chronology
•The Bronze Age begins around 2350 BC in Ireland
•First evidence of use of copper dates to around 2350 BC
•By 2000 BC, copper is being alloyed with tin to make bronze
•Gold appears around this time as well
•Conventionally the Bronze Age is divided into three phases:
–Early (2350 BC to 1700 BC);
–Middle (1700 BC to 1200 BC)
–Late (1200 BC to 700 BC).
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•Individual burials
•Flat axes
•Tanged daggers
•Barbed and tanged arrowheads
•Decorated pottery
•Archers wristguards
•V-perforated buttons
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•Individual burials
•Flat axes
•Tanged daggers
•Barbed and tanged arrowheads
•Decorated pottery
•Archers wristguards
•V-perforated buttons
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•Individual burials
•Flat axes
•Tanged daggers
•Barbed and tanged arrowheads
•Decorated pottery
•Archers wristguards
•V-perforated buttons
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•Individual burials
•Flat axes
•Tanged daggers
•Barbed and tanged arrowheads
•Decorated pottery
•Archers wristguards
•V-perforated buttons
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•Individual burials
•Flat axes
•Decorated Pottery
•Tanged daggers
•Barbed and tanged
arrowheads
•Decorated pottery
•Archers wristguards
•V-perforated buttons
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•Individual burials
•Flat axes
•Decorated Pottery
•Tanged daggers
•Barbed and tanged
arrowheads
•Decorated pottery
•Archers wristguards
•V-perforated buttons
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•GOLD
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•GOLD
Lunulae
Two main types:
Classical (heavily decorated, symmetrical), from Killarney, Co. Kerry
Unaccomplished (i.e. little decoration, asymmetric) as shown here from a hoard of four from Dunfierny in Co. Kildare
Characteristics of the Early Bronze Age
•Halberds
•Battleaxes
Pottery
Bowl Tradition pottery
Vase Tradition pottery
Urns from the Vase Tradition
Collared Urn (Tara, Co. Meath)
Cordoned Urn (Gortlush, Co. Donegal)
Ballinagore (Co. Wicklow)
Finds associated with Collared Urns
Finds associated with Cordoned Urns
Razors found with Cordoned Urns
Faience Beads
Burial Mounds
•Poulawack, Co. Clare
Burial Mounds
•Poulawack, Co. Clare
•Excavation revealed multiple phases of use
Poulawack, Co. Clare
Clogher Lower (Co. Roscommon)
•Typical mound – Bronze Age in date.
•Central burial sealed by cairn/earthen mound.
Clogher Lower (Co. Roscommon)
Ballinagore (Co. Wicklow)
Knockast, Co. Westmeath
Knockast, Co. Westmeath
Individual Burial
•CISTS
Segmented Cist
Laughanstown, Co. Dublin
Ballygalley,County Antrim
Death and Burial in continental Europe
Variation in practice across Europe
Early Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Ireland, Britain, Southern Russia, Southern Scandinavia, Northern Germany, Netherlands, Brittany, East Hungary, West Serbia, Albania
•Flat Inhumation Cemetery: Central Europe, Italy, Central Russia, Northern Russia.
•Cremation Cemetery: Hungary
Early Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Ireland, Britain, Southern Russia, Southern Scandinavia, Northern Germany, Netherlands, Brittany, East Hungary, West Serbia, Albania
•Novaya Kvasnikovka, Volgograd (kurgan 4, burial 5) – 2000 BC
Early Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Novaya Kvasnikovka, Volgograd (kurgan 4, burial 5) – 2000 BC
Early Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
Early Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Ireland, Britain, Southern Russia, Southern Scandinavia, Northern Germany, Netherlands, Brittany, East Hungary, West Serbia, Albania
•Chastiye, Kurgan 20, Lower Don (Russia)– 2000 BC
Kurgan, Aliaga Steppe, Ukraine
Kurgan Vizir, Romania
Normanton Down barrow cemetery
Bush Barrow
Bush Barrow Finds
Golden Barrow
Golden Barrow
Helmsdorf, Germany (EBA)
Leubingen, Germany (EBA)
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Inhumation Cemetery: Rare
•Cremation Cemetery: Rare
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Egtved kommune, Denmark
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Egtved kommune, Denmark
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Egtved kommune, Denmark
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Egtved kommune, Denmark
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Boat-shaped graves (Sweden)
Lugnaro, Sweden
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Toterfout (Netherlands)
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Toterfout (Netherlands)
Middle Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe, Northern Europe, Pontic Zone, Parts of the Balkans
•Balkans (various)
Late Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Tumulus Burials (i.e. in a mound, barrow, cairn or kurgan): Central Europe (rare), Parts of Balkans, Steppe zone
•Inhumation Cemetery: Central Europe (rare)
•Cremation Cemetery: Ireland and Britain, Central Europe, Italy, Northern Europe, France, Spain, most of the Balkans
Late Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Inhumation Cemetery: Central Europe (rare)
•Vyčapy-Opatovce
Late Bronze Age: Dominant Burial Rites
•Cremation Cemetery: Ireland and Britain, Central Europe, Italy, Northern Europe, France, Spain, most of the Balkans
•Vollmarshausen (Germany) - Urnfield Cemetery
Vollmarshausen - Urnfield Cemetery
Cemeteries
•Provide useful data on population health and general demographics.
•Estimated life expectancy in Britain was 31.3 (male) and 29.9 (female). Only 3.3% live to see 50.
•Central Europeans – life expectancy poor beyond 40, but in Iberia it is a different picture.
Thapsos, Sicily
Tholos, Mycenae
The "Agamemnon" MaskGold, from Tomb V at Mycenae Sixteenth century BC
Trackways in Ireland
TRACKWAYS
Valentia Island Tetrapod Trackway, County Kerry
A series of the footprints of a tetrapod - a large amphibian animal that walked on soft sediment 385 million years ago. A unique record of the transition of life from the sea to land.
Valentia Island, Tetrapod Trackway, County Kerry
First major modern find was Corlea in Co. Longford
This was dated by dendrochronology to 148 BC
Corlea
Excavated by Prof. Barry Raftery from UCD
This led to some international debate over the lack of research in Irelands bogs.
Trackways in Bogs
Further examination of the Corlea part of the Mountdillon Bogs revealed further sites
Irish Archaeological Wetland Unit (IAWU)
IAWU was set up in UCD in the early 1990s and a programme of bog surveys was started.
Corlea Visitor Centre
A portion of the Corlea trackway was preserved and put on display in a visitor centre in the bog.
Function?
Their function isn’t always as obvious as we would expect.
Some trackways bridge a chain of bogs.
Some are designed to use part of the bog.
Cooleeny, Site 31, Co. Tipperary
Dated to c. 620 BC, crosses bog.
Cooleeny, Site 31, Co. Tipperary
Cooleeny, Site 31, Co. Tipperary
Killoran, Site 18, Co. Tipperary
Dates to c. 1450 BC – crosses bog from east to west.
Killoran, Site 18, Co. Tipperary
Trackways that don’t cross a bog…
Some trackways are built to access the resources available in bogs (trees, bushes, water courses, wild-life).
Some structures are built as dry islands for various uses.
Trackways that don’t cross a bog…
Derryfadda, Co. Tipperary
Short trackway
Trackways that don’t cross a bog…
Derryfadda, Site 23, Co. Tipperary
Short trackway made of planks
Dated to 1590 BC
Trackways that don’t cross a bog…
Cooleeny, Site 306, Co. Tipperary
Short trackway using mixture of brushwood and roundwood (but no planks)
Trackways that don’t cross a bog…
Killoran Site 315, Co. Tipperary
Short trackway incorporating panels of woven wood (hurdles)
Platforms in bogs
Similar to crannogs and other artificial islands but smaller and not permanently occupied.
Post Rows
Sometimes a long line of posts are recorded.
These are often marking off areas of very wet bog.
Killoran Site 54, Co. Tipperary.
Post Row
Derryfadda 209, Co. Tipperary.
Marks off area of very wet bog.
Dates to Late Bronze Age
Trackways have been found dating to all periods
Fenor Bog, Co. Waterford
Building a Trackway
Valentia Island Tetrapod Trackway, County Kerry
A series of the footprints of a tetrapod - a large amphibian animal that walked on soft sediment 385 million years ago. A unique record of the transition of life from the sea to land.
Valentia Island, Tetrapod Trackway, County Kerry
First major modern find was Corlea in Co. Longford
This was dated by dendrochronology to 148 BC
Corlea
Excavated by Prof. Barry Raftery from UCD
This led to some international debate over the lack of research in Irelands bogs.
Trackways in Bogs
Further examination of the Corlea part of the Mountdillon Bogs revealed further sites
Irish Archaeological Wetland Unit (IAWU)
IAWU was set up in UCD in the early 1990s and a programme of bog surveys was started.
Corlea Visitor Centre
A portion of the Corlea trackway was preserved and put on display in a visitor centre in the bog.
Function?
Their function isn’t always as obvious as we would expect.
Some trackways bridge a chain of bogs.
Some are designed to use part of the bog.
Cooleeny, Site 31, Co. Tipperary
Dated to c. 620 BC, crosses bog.
Cooleeny, Site 31, Co. Tipperary
Cooleeny, Site 31, Co. Tipperary
Killoran, Site 18, Co. Tipperary
Dates to c. 1450 BC – crosses bog from east to west.
Killoran, Site 18, Co. Tipperary
Trackways that don’t cross a bog…
Some trackways are built to access the resources available in bogs (trees, bushes, water courses, wild-life).
Some structures are built as dry islands for various uses.
Trackways that don’t cross a bog…
Derryfadda, Co. Tipperary
Short trackway
Trackways that don’t cross a bog…
Derryfadda, Site 23, Co. Tipperary
Short trackway made of planks
Dated to 1590 BC
Trackways that don’t cross a bog…
Cooleeny, Site 306, Co. Tipperary
Short trackway using mixture of brushwood and roundwood (but no planks)
Trackways that don’t cross a bog…
Killoran Site 315, Co. Tipperary
Short trackway incorporating panels of woven wood (hurdles)
Platforms in bogs
Similar to crannogs and other artificial islands but smaller and not permanently occupied.
Post Rows
Sometimes a long line of posts are recorded.
These are often marking off areas of very wet bog.
Killoran Site 54, Co. Tipperary.
Post Row
Derryfadda 209, Co. Tipperary.
Marks off area of very wet bog.
Dates to Late Bronze Age
Trackways have been found dating to all periods
Fenor Bog, Co. Waterford
Building a Trackway
Fulachta Fiadh/Burnt Mounds
FULACHT FIADH and BURNT MOUNDS
Burnt Mound v Fulacht Fiadh
Fulacht Fiadh: A horseshoe-shaped or kidney-shaped, mound consisting of fire-cracked stone and charcoal-enriched soil built up around a sunken trough located near or adjacent to a water supply, such as a stream or spring, or in wet marshy areas. The term 'fulacht fia' is ascribed to these sites by Geoffrey Keating. Often associated with cooking, they date primarily, but not exclusively, to the Bronze Age.
Burnt Mound: A burnt mound consists of a circular or irregularly shaped mound of material consisting of burnt stones, ash and charcoal with no surface evidence of a trough or depression. See also fulacht fia.
Keating’s account (from 17th century AD)
'However, from Bealtaine until Samhain, the Fian were obliged to depend solely on the products of their hunting and of the chase … And it was their custom to send their attendants about noon with whatever they had killed in the morning's hunt to an appointed hill …
Keating’s account (from 17th century AD)
… and to kindle raging fires thereon, and put into them a large number of emery stones: and to dig two pits in the yellow clay of the moorland, and put some meat on spits to roast before the fire and to bind another portion of it with súgain in dry bundles, and set it to boil in the larger of the two pits, and keep plying them with the stones that were in the fire … until they were cooked. And these fires were so large that their sites are today in Ireland burnt to blackness, and these are now called Fulacht Fian by the peasantry.
Burnt Mound
Spread of heat shattered stone.
Employ shallow fresh water wells to get water
Cherrywood, Site 3, County Dublin(dated c. 2400-2100 BC)see www.excavations.ie
Killoran, Site 240 (County Tipperary)In Gowen, Ó Néill, Phillips (eds) 2005 Lisheen Mine Archaeological Project. Wordwell
Wells are sometimes lined with wood
These are often referred to as troughs.
Pit and spread of heat-shattered stone.
Killoran Site 26, Co. Tipperary.
Shows typical layout – shattered stone spread around the pit or trough.
What can they tell us?
Where the stones survive from the last use, we can gain some idea of how they were used…
Plot showing the volume of stone required to raise the temperature of 1 litre of water by 1° C, relative to the temperature to which the stone was heated.
Buildings
Some burnt mounds have produced evidence of buildings.
These are simple circular settings of posts
These are simple stone-built buildings.
These are complex, 2-roomed structures.
Drombeg, Co. Cork
Functions other than cooking?
Keatings story ends by saying:
'As to the Fian … each of them stripped off, and tied his shirt around his waist; and they ranged themselves around the second pit … bathing their hair and washing their limbs, and removing their sweat, and then exercising their joints and muscles, thus ridding themselves of their fatigue.
Central America
Charlesland, Co. Wicklow
Panpipes
Dates for Ireland
Burnt Mound v Fulacht Fiadh
Fulacht Fiadh: A horseshoe-shaped or kidney-shaped, mound consisting of fire-cracked stone and charcoal-enriched soil built up around a sunken trough located near or adjacent to a water supply, such as a stream or spring, or in wet marshy areas. The term 'fulacht fia' is ascribed to these sites by Geoffrey Keating. Often associated with cooking, they date primarily, but not exclusively, to the Bronze Age.
Burnt Mound: A burnt mound consists of a circular or irregularly shaped mound of material consisting of burnt stones, ash and charcoal with no surface evidence of a trough or depression. See also fulacht fia.
Keating’s account (from 17th century AD)
'However, from Bealtaine until Samhain, the Fian were obliged to depend solely on the products of their hunting and of the chase … And it was their custom to send their attendants about noon with whatever they had killed in the morning's hunt to an appointed hill …
Keating’s account (from 17th century AD)
… and to kindle raging fires thereon, and put into them a large number of emery stones: and to dig two pits in the yellow clay of the moorland, and put some meat on spits to roast before the fire and to bind another portion of it with súgain in dry bundles, and set it to boil in the larger of the two pits, and keep plying them with the stones that were in the fire … until they were cooked. And these fires were so large that their sites are today in Ireland burnt to blackness, and these are now called Fulacht Fian by the peasantry.
Burnt Mound
Spread of heat shattered stone.
Employ shallow fresh water wells to get water
Cherrywood, Site 3, County Dublin(dated c. 2400-2100 BC)see www.excavations.ie
Killoran, Site 240 (County Tipperary)In Gowen, Ó Néill, Phillips (eds) 2005 Lisheen Mine Archaeological Project. Wordwell
Wells are sometimes lined with wood
These are often referred to as troughs.
Pit and spread of heat-shattered stone.
Killoran Site 26, Co. Tipperary.
Shows typical layout – shattered stone spread around the pit or trough.
What can they tell us?
Where the stones survive from the last use, we can gain some idea of how they were used…
Plot showing the volume of stone required to raise the temperature of 1 litre of water by 1° C, relative to the temperature to which the stone was heated.
Buildings
Some burnt mounds have produced evidence of buildings.
These are simple circular settings of posts
These are simple stone-built buildings.
These are complex, 2-roomed structures.
Drombeg, Co. Cork
Functions other than cooking?
Keatings story ends by saying:
'As to the Fian … each of them stripped off, and tied his shirt around his waist; and they ranged themselves around the second pit … bathing their hair and washing their limbs, and removing their sweat, and then exercising their joints and muscles, thus ridding themselves of their fatigue.
Central America
Charlesland, Co. Wicklow
Panpipes
Dates for Ireland
Neolithic Notes on the Development of Agriculture
Domesticating the wild
The origins of farming in the Levant
In this lecture we will discuss the beginnings of food production, primarily focusing on the region of southwest Asia known as the Levant, but we will also briefly discuss the beginnings of farming in other parts of the world. We will review the various forms of evidence archaeologists have employed to investigate the onset of cereal cultivation and animal domestication from c.10,000 years ago. This will be addressed in relation to several key sites that provided a focus for early agriculture. We will close with a discussion on the different interpretations on how and why these changes may have taken place in the Levant at that particular time.
Key terms and phrases: origins of agriculture, domestication, cultivation, plants and animals, Levant, Natufian, Epi-palaeolithic, tell sites, PPNA/B, Abu Hureyra, Jericho, Çatalhöyük
Marching West
The 'advance of agriculture' across Europe
For the second lecture in this series we will move further west to central and eastern Europe and consider the arrival of neolithic lifeways there. We will discuss a number of key locations and review the main changes as well as continuities from earlier periods. While considering the large scale, global, phenomenon of these developments we will continually hone in on the local events visible in the archaeological record, such as evidence for settlement, material culture and the treatment of the dead.
Key terms and phrases: spread of agriculture, models, colonisation, migration, demic/cultural diffusion, Mediterranean, Cyprus & Crete, the Balkans, Franchthi Cave, Danube Gorges, Lepenski Vir, central and west Mediterranean, cardial ware.
Lecture 10. Longhouse life ? Settlement and daily life in neolithic Europe
This lecture will continue the themes of the previous one but will pay particular attention to aspects of daily life within the so called Linear Potter Culture (LBK) of central and eastern Europe. We will primarily examine the evidence from the longhouse ?villages? so typical of the period from c.5500BC and discuss what this evidence can tell us about people?s lives within and around these settlements. Again we will seek to make inferences about technology, social organisation and ideology, but in slight contrast to the previous lecture aim to focus our analysis at a smaller scale with questions relating to people?s daily life in early neolithic central Europe at its heart. As part of this we will also explore questions of social organisation, conflict and ideology.
Key terms and phrases: Linear Pottery Culture (LBK), Long house settlements, distribution, rapid spread, treatment of the dead, ideology, conflict
Lecture 11. Postcard from the Alps ? Ötzi the Iceman, a case study for neolithic daily life
For the final lecture on the neolithic period in continental Europe we will change our perspective, from looking for clues on a rather broad scale level of the earlier lectures to the material related to one particular discovery. More specifically, we will consider in detail the fate of one later neolithic person who died in the Similaun glacier close to the Italian ? Austrian border around 3300BC. Instead of asking who that person was and what brought him there we will investigate what this find can reveal about the conditions of the lives of people in late neolithic ? also known as Chalcolithic ? central Europe.
Key terms and phrases: ice mummy, Ötzi, organic preservation, equipment, materials, tattoos and body art, conflict
Lecture 12. Neolithic beginnings in Ireland
The first lecture on the neolithic period in Ireland will begin by addressing the question of the earliest evidence for domesticated animals and cultivated cereal crops on the island. We will then move on to discuss other developments of the late fifth and early fourth millennia BC, such as the first use of pottery, the construction of large timber and stone built structures, and changes in lithic technology. We will consider this evidence in the context of contrasting views, interpreting these developments as primarily economic ones on one hand or largely ideologically driven ones on the other.
Key terms and phrases: Island ecology, environmental signatures, elm decline, pollen diagrams, cereal crops, domesticated animals, pottery, lithic artefact technology, timber post built structures, neolithic ?houses?, causewayed enclosures, colonisation, migration, indigenous adoption
Lecture 13. Grand statements in stone ? Irish middle neolithic trends
This lecture will concentrate on the period between c.3600 and 3100BC, best known for the increase and diversification in the construction of large megalithic monuments, with three of the four commonly classified tomb types largely dating to this phase, although at least some of these may have had their origin in preceding centuries. Therefore along with continued construction of rectangular timber structures ? often referred to as neolithic ?houses? ? the use of these monuments suggests some degree of continuation from early neolithic times. We will also address the significance of wide and far reaching exchange links between many parts of Ireland, Britain and continental Europe, which represent another important feature of the archaeology of the fourth millennium BC.
Key terms and phrases: megalithic tombs (passage, court, portal tombs), Linkardstown burials, continuity, exchange networks, stone axe ?trade?, communication
Lecture 14. Continuity and change in late neolithic Ireland
The final lecture in our neolithic series will concentrate of the last five centuries of the period, preceding the arrival of metal working. Once again this phase shows continuity from the earlier middle neolithic but equally into the earlier Bronze Age. While initially passage tombs appear to remain in use we will see that they are oftentimes associated with new pottery styles and also a tendency to create ?ritual complexes? or landscapes. We will also discuss the significance of an increase in open-air ?ceremonial? enclosures. Our exploration of neolithic Ireland will draw to a close with the arrival of the fourth type of megalithic tomb in Ireland and that of beaker pottery. These events, which appear to immediately precede ? or even coincide with ? the development of metallurgy, will provide us with a suitable point from which to reflect on the changes of the preceding 1500 years.
Key terms and phrases: passage tomb complexes, open air enclosure, henges, cursus monuments, grooved ware, wedge tombs, beaker pottery.
The origins of farming in the Levant
In this lecture we will discuss the beginnings of food production, primarily focusing on the region of southwest Asia known as the Levant, but we will also briefly discuss the beginnings of farming in other parts of the world. We will review the various forms of evidence archaeologists have employed to investigate the onset of cereal cultivation and animal domestication from c.10,000 years ago. This will be addressed in relation to several key sites that provided a focus for early agriculture. We will close with a discussion on the different interpretations on how and why these changes may have taken place in the Levant at that particular time.
Key terms and phrases: origins of agriculture, domestication, cultivation, plants and animals, Levant, Natufian, Epi-palaeolithic, tell sites, PPNA/B, Abu Hureyra, Jericho, Çatalhöyük
Marching West
The 'advance of agriculture' across Europe
For the second lecture in this series we will move further west to central and eastern Europe and consider the arrival of neolithic lifeways there. We will discuss a number of key locations and review the main changes as well as continuities from earlier periods. While considering the large scale, global, phenomenon of these developments we will continually hone in on the local events visible in the archaeological record, such as evidence for settlement, material culture and the treatment of the dead.
Key terms and phrases: spread of agriculture, models, colonisation, migration, demic/cultural diffusion, Mediterranean, Cyprus & Crete, the Balkans, Franchthi Cave, Danube Gorges, Lepenski Vir, central and west Mediterranean, cardial ware.
Lecture 10. Longhouse life ? Settlement and daily life in neolithic Europe
This lecture will continue the themes of the previous one but will pay particular attention to aspects of daily life within the so called Linear Potter Culture (LBK) of central and eastern Europe. We will primarily examine the evidence from the longhouse ?villages? so typical of the period from c.5500BC and discuss what this evidence can tell us about people?s lives within and around these settlements. Again we will seek to make inferences about technology, social organisation and ideology, but in slight contrast to the previous lecture aim to focus our analysis at a smaller scale with questions relating to people?s daily life in early neolithic central Europe at its heart. As part of this we will also explore questions of social organisation, conflict and ideology.
Key terms and phrases: Linear Pottery Culture (LBK), Long house settlements, distribution, rapid spread, treatment of the dead, ideology, conflict
Lecture 11. Postcard from the Alps ? Ötzi the Iceman, a case study for neolithic daily life
For the final lecture on the neolithic period in continental Europe we will change our perspective, from looking for clues on a rather broad scale level of the earlier lectures to the material related to one particular discovery. More specifically, we will consider in detail the fate of one later neolithic person who died in the Similaun glacier close to the Italian ? Austrian border around 3300BC. Instead of asking who that person was and what brought him there we will investigate what this find can reveal about the conditions of the lives of people in late neolithic ? also known as Chalcolithic ? central Europe.
Key terms and phrases: ice mummy, Ötzi, organic preservation, equipment, materials, tattoos and body art, conflict
Lecture 12. Neolithic beginnings in Ireland
The first lecture on the neolithic period in Ireland will begin by addressing the question of the earliest evidence for domesticated animals and cultivated cereal crops on the island. We will then move on to discuss other developments of the late fifth and early fourth millennia BC, such as the first use of pottery, the construction of large timber and stone built structures, and changes in lithic technology. We will consider this evidence in the context of contrasting views, interpreting these developments as primarily economic ones on one hand or largely ideologically driven ones on the other.
Key terms and phrases: Island ecology, environmental signatures, elm decline, pollen diagrams, cereal crops, domesticated animals, pottery, lithic artefact technology, timber post built structures, neolithic ?houses?, causewayed enclosures, colonisation, migration, indigenous adoption
Lecture 13. Grand statements in stone ? Irish middle neolithic trends
This lecture will concentrate on the period between c.3600 and 3100BC, best known for the increase and diversification in the construction of large megalithic monuments, with three of the four commonly classified tomb types largely dating to this phase, although at least some of these may have had their origin in preceding centuries. Therefore along with continued construction of rectangular timber structures ? often referred to as neolithic ?houses? ? the use of these monuments suggests some degree of continuation from early neolithic times. We will also address the significance of wide and far reaching exchange links between many parts of Ireland, Britain and continental Europe, which represent another important feature of the archaeology of the fourth millennium BC.
Key terms and phrases: megalithic tombs (passage, court, portal tombs), Linkardstown burials, continuity, exchange networks, stone axe ?trade?, communication
Lecture 14. Continuity and change in late neolithic Ireland
The final lecture in our neolithic series will concentrate of the last five centuries of the period, preceding the arrival of metal working. Once again this phase shows continuity from the earlier middle neolithic but equally into the earlier Bronze Age. While initially passage tombs appear to remain in use we will see that they are oftentimes associated with new pottery styles and also a tendency to create ?ritual complexes? or landscapes. We will also discuss the significance of an increase in open-air ?ceremonial? enclosures. Our exploration of neolithic Ireland will draw to a close with the arrival of the fourth type of megalithic tomb in Ireland and that of beaker pottery. These events, which appear to immediately precede ? or even coincide with ? the development of metallurgy, will provide us with a suitable point from which to reflect on the changes of the preceding 1500 years.
Key terms and phrases: passage tomb complexes, open air enclosure, henges, cursus monuments, grooved ware, wedge tombs, beaker pottery.
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