Norman Castles, Anglo-Norman Ireland and the crisis of the 14th century.

Norman Castles, Anglo-Norman Ireland and the crisis of the 14th century.

The First Castles
The first buildings in England that are often classed as castles are actually Roman/Saxon Shore Forts.
These were constructed during the first to third centuries AD.
Ten were built between Hampshire and Norfolk and parts of most of them still survive (eg Portchester below).
Portchester
Main walls date from 3rd and 4th century AD (from the Roman Fort Portus Adurni).
The walls form a 180m by 180 m square and were substantially repaired in the mediaeval period).
14, of an original 20, hollow semi-circular bastions survive.

Portchester
In the north west corner of the fort is a mediaeval castle built during the reign of Henry II (1154-1189), moated to the south and east.

Portchester
The keep extends beyond the Roman walls, and is 40 ft. square with walls 8 ft. thick, originally of three storeys, a fourth was added in the thirteenth century. Other buildings erected in fourteenth and seventeenth century are now in ruins.

Pevensey
Others, like Pevensey (Anderita), were still in use during the Second World War. Other stone fortifications guarded the borders with Wales and Scotland, the most impressive being Hadrian's Wall.

Norman Castles
The first medieval castles to be built in England were constructed in the middle of the 11th century by Edward the Confessor and followed the pattern being developed by the Normans in France.
These mottes, were up to 100 feet in height and could be a natural feature or an artifical mound of earth (or both).
A keep, protected the top and another surrounded the motte and some adjacent land forming the bailey.
Few pre-conquest castles have been identified, such as Richard's Castle in Herefordshire, Burford/Tenbury motte and Ham Castle .
Richard's Castle
1052: Thought to take it’s name from Richard son of Scrob or Scrope, a Norman favourite of Edward the Confessor. Richard had settled in Herefordshire by 1052.
1086: First mentioned in the Domesday Survey under the name of Aureton (modern day Orleton). The church of Orleton is only 2 miles South of Richard’s Castle.
Richard’s Castle
In 1962-4 excavations were carried out by the University of London, identifying 5 periods of construction:
Motte and bailey dating from c 1050-1
12th century octagonal tower, 50ft in diameter with walls 2ft thick. This survives to the height of the first floor.
Early-13th century curtain wall and a large square residential tower on the Eastern curtain wall.
Late-13th century curtain wall thickened in places. The Northwestern side being completely rebuilt and furnished with semicircular wall towers.
Post-Invasion
Immediately after the invasion in 1066, the Normans commenced a massive programme of castle building to protect themselves and local supporters while they advanced across the rest of the country.
These initially were motte and bailey designs, and were predominantly constructed of wood.
The earliest keeps were generally circular (matching the shape of the top of the motte), but rectangular or square ones became more popular as it was easier to construct living accommodation inside. 
Typical motte and bailey layout
Mottes
Bayeux Tapestry showing the motte at Hastings being built.
Mottes
Illustrated on the Bayeux Tapestry
Note apparently circular wooden structure.
Mottes
Another from the Bayeux Tapestry
Note the circular wooden structure.
Post-Invasion
Some later mottes such as Totnes Castle (pictured left) are believed to have been started with stone defences. Totnes dates to 1086 or slightly later.
Post-Invasion
Some of these early castles still remain but many were abandoned as the invasion progressed.
Those that did survive have been extended over the years but the remainder either have vanished altogether or just a motte still stands.
The motte & bailey design was the standard defence of the 11th and 12th century, but the shell keep, a much larger keep on a lower motte into which most of the accommodation could be fitted became more common in the 12th century.
Mottes and shell keeps
Gisors in Normandy.
Built by Henry I of King of England and Duke of Normandy.
Consisted of a rectangular keep on top of the motte with an outer wooden palisade (replaced with a stone chemise in 1161)
Restormal Castle (Cornwall)
Motte and bailey style castle, first built c.1100.
Surrounded by a deep, wide moat.
Unusual huge circular shell keep encloses the principal apartments of the castle.
A larger keep on a lower motte is more common by the 12th century.
Post-Invasion
After the invasion was complete there was time for more extensive defences to be built up in the most important cities.
By 1085 there were approximately 100 well defended fortifications built both by the king and his Barons.
Wood was readily available across most of the country but is not the ideal defence because of its flammability so existing structures were rebuilt in stone over the next 100 years.
One of the best examples of this is the Tower of London.
The White Tower (London)
The White Tower was originally referred to as the Great Tower.
The White Tower (London) 1597
The White Tower
The Tower was originally built as timber Motte and Bailey castle shortly after the Norman Invasion of 1066.
The timber structure was replaced by a massive stone keep.
The stone building was started in 1078 and completed in 1097 (by Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester).
The White Tower
Caen stone was used to decorate the window surrounds and other features.
The rest is built with Kentish ragstone.
Of the four stone turrets, three are square and one is circular.
The White Tower (London)
The White Tower was self contained: it included a chapel (The Chapel of St John) designed in a Romanesque style.
It was also provided with a well so that it could withstand a siege.
By the late 1100s the Tower was surrounded by an outer curtain wall and moat.
Stone keep with an outer curtain wall became the favoured layout.
Rochester Castle
Originally a motte and bailey founded by William the Conqueror (within the walls of the Roman Durobreve).
In 1088-9, Gundulf, bishop of Rochester founded the stone enclosure castle, when replacing the timber defences with an irregular curtain wall.
In 1127, William de Corbeil, archbishop of Canterbury added the square four storey keep, which is defended by a tall protruding forebuilding.
Rochester Castle
In 1215, when garrisoned by rebel barons, the castle endured dramatic seven week siege by King John, when the stronghold was breached by mines which collapsed part of the curtain wall and the adjacent tower of the keep.
King Henry III and King Edward III made repairs to the castle, which remained a viable fortress in the 15th century.
Post-Rochester Castle Siege
Circular keeps continued in use to the middle of the 12th century as they had no weak corner spots that could be undermined.
The disadvantage was the difficulty of building living space inside, but to overcome this a few were circular on the outside but square on the inside.
There was an outbreak of castle building during the first Civil War between 1135 and 1154 when over eleven hundred fortifications were built. Almost all were demolished after hostilities ended and little remains of them.
Afterwards castle-building was mainly a royal pre-rogative.
Barbicans
As designs slowly evolved the emphasis was towards refurbishment as much as new buildings.
The preference was to heighten walls which were also well fortified with towers.
The keep began to lose its importance and was often replaced by a tall strong gatehouse - a barbican.
The towers then were placed closer together and were more numerous.
For additional protection some were built on a hill or a rocky crag and outer baileys with additional walls.
Concentric structures
As the next stage towers were added to provide a concentric structure where a breach in the outer wall could still be defended from an inner defensive structure e.g. Pembroke & Beeston castles.
Additional baileys protected with walls were also added to existing castles such as Corfe and Chepstow.
Pembroke Castle
Pembroke
In 1093 Earl Roger of Montgomery built a timber castle.
Two sieges were successfully resisted and the strategic importance of the castle grew as Pembroke became the base for the Normans' campaigns in Ireland.
In 1189 William Marshal became Earl of Pembroke. Over the next 30 years he transformed Pembroke into a powerful stone fortification.
Pembroke
According to legend an Irish bishop had put a curse on William Marshal saying that all his sons would die childless.
The castle eventually passed into the hands of William de Valence, a half-brother of Henry III who became Lord of Pembroke through his marriage to Joan, granddaughter of William Marshal.
The Valence family held the castle for 70 years and strengthen it by building the walls and towers around the outer ward.
The castle later passed through marriage into the hands of the Hastings family.
Beeston Castle (Cheshire)
Beeston Castle
Beeston was built by Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester.
Described as Castellum de Rupe.
One of two major castles built by Ranulph in the 1220s, shortly after his return from the 5th Crusade, the other being Bolingbroke in Lincolnshire.
Beeston Castle
Unlike many other castles of the period, Beeston does not have a motte as its last line of defence.
Instead the natural features of the land together with massive walls, strong gate houses, and carefully positioned towers made the baileys themselves the stronghold.
Beeston Castle
Defences consist of two parts: a small inner bailey, or fortified wall, on the summit of the hill with a 9 m deep defensive ditch cut into the rock; an outer bailey was built on the lower slopes, with a massive gatehouse protected by a 3 m deep ditch.
Corfe Castle
Pre-Norman earthworks may have been present.
In the 11th century the stone hall was constructed along with an inner bailey wall.
Corfe was one of King John’s favourite castles. Between 1199 and 1216 he added a great many defences. During his troubled reign the castle was often used as a prison, where many prisoners met their deaths.
John also turned Corfe Castle into a comfortable royal residence.
This picture dates from 1643.
Corfe Castle
Corfe Castle
Chepstow Castle
Construction began within months Hastings, when William fitz Osbern was made Earl of Hereford.
Chepstow was granted to the de Clare family about 1115, but no new construction was done until the castle, until Isabella de Clare married William Marshall (Strongbows daughter).
He added of two towers to the vulnerable east end of the castle which was greatly augmented by the further additions by 4 of his 5 sons between 1219 and 1245.
These improvements included the lower ward with its gatehouse on the east end and the upper ward on the west end with two separate battlemented residential towers. The west end of the Great Tower was heightened as well.
Chepstow Castle
The Marshall brothers all died childless by 1245 and the families holdings were thus divided among the sisters.
The eldest, Maud, received Chepstow which she passed upon her death to son Roger Bigod II, the Earl of Norfolk. While the Earl's interests were elsewhere, his son Roger Bigod III was very interested in his Marcher lordship when he inherited Chepstow in 1270.
The lower ward of the castle received an enlarged curtain tower and a major residential range, the west end was strengthened further with the barbican gatehouse, and the Great Tower was further embellished. Bigod's numerous building projects left him in debt and Chepstow passed to the king upon his death in 1306.
Chepstow Castle
Development of Chepstow
Chepstow Castle: 1067-75
Chepstow Castle: c. 1200
Chepstow Castle: c. 1219-45
Chepstow Castle: c. 1270-1300

Medieval Castles in Ireland
Surviving medieval castles are relatively rare in Ireland.
The pattern largely follows that of England with mottes, keep castles then shell keeps and castles.
As in England and Wales, baronial output diminishes as castle-building becomes a royal prerogative.
The majority of the surviving buildings are actually late medieval tower houses.
Early Castles
A number of early structures are claimed as castles.
Historical records refer to a number of ‘castles’ that pre-date 1169.
These appear to be earthwork castles not unlike ‘mottes’.
Mottes
The map shows mottes erected by the Normans in Ireland after 1169 and mainly before 1220.
From quite early on, natural outcrops or earlier earthworks were modified for use as mottes.
There are at least 456 known in Ireland although these are mostly in Leinster and east Ulster.
Motte: Clonard, Co. Meath
Date to late 12th to 13th century AD
Earthwork castles built by the Normans
Clonard was erected c 1177 under the direction of Hugh De Lacy when the Normans occupied the area

Glascarrig, Co. Wexford
Norman Stone Fortesses
The first phase of castle construction in Ireland was from 1175 to 1210-1220 when the royal castles begin to be constructed.
This phase of castle building ends around 1310.
The earliest castles built in the first phase were constructed by a handful of powerful knights, such as Hugh de Lacy (who built Trim, opposite) and John de Courcy (who built Carrickfergus), or families like the Marshalls.
Carrickfergus Castle
Built on a rock promontory in Belfast Lough
Carrickfergus Castle
Built by John de Courcy from 1178 onwards
It wasn’t conceived as a single project and it appears to have evolved during construction
The first phase effectively represents the same principles as a motte and bailey.
Carrickfergus
The earliest phase at Carrickfergus dates to 1178-1200
By 1200, there was a keep, a hall and an outer precinct wall on the rock promontory
There is a fresh water well within the keep
Yellow stone (Cultra stone) used to decorate openings
Carrickfergus
The ground plan and investigations have indicated that the initial construction plan was modified considerably before it was completed
The base of the keep is not square and the Cultra stone was only added in mid-construction
Carrickfergus
The original construction may not have included the hall
The outer precinct wall appears to include two phases with the keep only raised after an initial wall was built
De Courcy may have started with a simple stone-walled enclosure for protection and only proceeded to develop the castle when his position was secure
Carrickfergus
Second major construction campaign saw an enlarged outer ward added in 1215-1223 (after Rochester demonstrated the flaws of an exposed keep)
The works provided additional protection to the keep and hall

Carrickfergus
Final major construction campaign saw a second outer ward added in 1225-1250 with a gate house
The were some later modifications in the 14th century, 16th century, 17th century and 19th century.

Dundrum, Co. Down
Begun by John de Courcy between 1177 and 1203
It incorporates a series of phases
It appears to have been preceded by a ringwork
There is a circular keep that seems to have replaced an earlier building
Dundrum Castle (Co. Down)
Dundrum, Co. Down
Published plans (e.g. above right) of Dundrum appear to be inaccurate as they do not include a pre-keep structure (that is visible) and both towers of the gate house (which appear on maps)
Originally Dundrum was laid out like Carrickfergus with an engaged keep (i.e. attached to the curtain wall).
Circular keeps
Nenagh Castle, Co. Tipperary built by Theobald Walter, head of the Butler family between 1200 and 1220.
Nenagh
At Nenagh the keep was part of the original perimeter of the castle.
Circular Keeps: Nenagh
Many keeps now show as great a concern for display and comfort as security
Nenagh has an ornate Romanesque doorway and large fireplaces
Nenagh Castle
Trim Castle
Built between 1210 and 1220 on the site of an earlier ringwork by Hugh de Lacey
It was linked by the River Boyne to his other major holdings at Drogheda and Dublin.
Trim Castle, Co. Meath
As part of a major conservation plan it was fully excavated
This identified that it had been preceded by a ringwork
It also showed how it had been designed and set out for construction
Keep-curtain separation reflects contemporary thinking on defense.
Towered Keeps
Built by William Marshal the elder and William Marshal the younger from 1207 to 1225 (Carlow, Ferns, Lea in Laois and Terryglass in Tipperary)
Each has a rectangular keep with circular corner towers
Ferns, Co.
Wexford

Ferns Castle
Royal Castles
Two major royal castles were built in Ireland shortly after 1210
Both gateways had twin D-shaped towers
These had an open plan without a free-standing great tower or keep
This type of castle had been recently developed in France and Wales
Dublin Castle
Dublin Castle
On 30th August 1204, King John commanded the erection of a strong castle for the defence of the city, administration of justice and safe custody of treasure.
The construction of Dublin Castle was completed by 1230
Henry de Londres, Justiciar and Archbishop of Dublin, is credited with this achievement
Limerick Castle
Plan from 17th century Pacata Hibernia
Limerick Castle


Limerick Castle
Mid-13th century Castles
Knights and Barons continued to build castles into the 13th century such as Castleroche in Louth shown below.
Castleroche, Co. Louth
Believed to have been built by Rohesia de Verdun in 1236
Exhibits a twin D-shaped gatehouse
Has one projecting tower
Incorporates a large hall

Castleroche, Co. Louth
View of Hall and Gatehouse from the south-east
Gatehouses
Almost all late-12th and early to mid-13th century castles have elaborate gatehouses, generally these are twin-towered
In some cases the main keep or hall is located at some distance from the gatehouse (e.g. Carrickfergus) in others it is located immediately behind the gatehouse (e.g. Castleroche)
Gatehouses
By the mid-13th century the defences of castles become more developed and the focus moves from the keeps to the curtain walls and the gate-towers
Examples built at this time are shown here
Fourteenth century Europe
After Romans, Europe’s population decline meant fewer food producers, therefore less food surplus.
Urban life went into decline.
Centralised authority collapsed.
Long distance trade vanished.
Arts and sciences went into decline.
Epidemics were frequent but became less virulent as humans adapted.
Population slowly began to increase around 1000AD.
Feudal Europe: a brief summary
Hierarchical system based on landholding as vassals held land from lords in return for services.
At the lowest level peasants provided labour in return for land (and stability).
At the top level stronger kings carved out kingdoms for themselves.
Stability, agricultural improvements and a food surplus supported the re-emergence of urban life.
Craft industries and trades became controlled by urban guilds.
Urban dwellers (bourgeoisie) then emerged as a new middle class.
Population numbers increased until disease intervened again in the mid 14th century.
The Crusades
The Crusades and events elsewhere in Eurasia brought diverse population groups into contact with each other.
This appears to have contributed to the re-emergence of epidemics in Europe.
It brought dense population centres which could support endemic diseases into contact with each other.
Pre-existing Conditions
War – Civil War in China 1205-1353
Little Ice Age at beginning of the 13th century
The Great Famine between 1315-1322 in Northern Europe
Typhoid Epidemic
Pestilence, maybe anthrax, hit the animals of Europe in 1318
These contributed towards increasing unemployment, further famine from decrease in food production (and producers) and disease
China
30-40 per cent of the army at the north-west frontier killed by epidemic in AD 161-162.
98 per cent of the population in Shaanxi province in north-west were killed by an epidemic 310-312; 20-30 per cent killed 10 years later over a wider area. Probably smallpox or measles hitting a virgin population.
Bubonic plague not mentioned until 610. By 642 it was common in coastal areas in Guangdong, suggesting ship origin.
By 8th century Chinese population had declined to three quarters what it had been.
Mercenaries had to be hired to defend frontiers.

India & Mesopotamia
India degenerated into petty warring states in the 7th century; captured by Moslems around 1000 AD.
Mesopotamia does not appear to have been too badly affected by diseases before 600, suggesting it was the source for the epidemics in other areas.
Population declined from about 600 onwards. May have been due to bubonic plague.
Captured by Moslem Arabs in 651.

Other Developments
Mongols (Genghis Kahn) established a massive empire running from Eastern Europe, through Mesopotamia, across central Europe to China. Silk road re-opened and other routes through steppes opened.
Genoese opened the Straits of Gibraltar to Christian shipping in 1291. Mediterranean was connected by ship to northern Europe.


Black Death
The Black Death is widely assumed to have been bubonic plague.
One theory suggests that Mongol troops who invaded the Himalayan source in 1253 brought it back to Mongolia, from where it spread underground across the steppes.
However, there is no evidence of plague amongst Mongols in 13th century.
Chinese records record no plague before 1331. Believed that this outbreak was transmitted by Mongols across Asia.
There is suggestive evidence of 14th century population losses amongst Mongols – e.g. driven out of China; steppes depopulated by 16th century.

The Black Death
The Black Death is thought to have entered Europe via a siege at Kaffa in the Crimea in 1347.
Supposedly transmitted by Geonoese to Constantinople and on to Italy.
Impact geographically uneven (cf. Milan and Rome).
Males, adults and more affluent more vulnerable. Theory that this may be related to iron in the diet.
Further epidemics in 1360s and 1370s. Intermittent for next 300 years.

Consequences for Population
1348:
Gaza: 10.000 dead
Aleppo: 500 dead per day
Damascus: 1000 dead per day
Syria: total of 400.000 dead

Lower mortality rate in the Middle East of less than one third of population
Black Death
Three Forms of the Disease

Bubonic Plague: painful lymph node swellings, buboes
Septicemic Plague: also called “blood poisoning”, attacked the blood system
Pneumonic Plague: attacked the respiratory system


Black Death
Illustration from the Toggenburg Bible, 1411
The Bubonic Plague
Painful lymph node swelling, called buboes
In groins and armpits
Oozing pus and blood
Damage to the skin and underlying tissue
Dark blotches = acral necrosis  Black Death!
The Bubonic Plague
A plague victim reveals
the telltale buboe on
his leg. From a 14th
Century illumination.
Symptoms of the bubonic Plague
Swellings “egg  apple”
Fever of 101-105 degrees F
Headaches and Aching joints
Nausea and vomiting (of blood)
General feeling of malaise
Swellings expanding until they burst  death following soon after
Whole process: 3-5 days
NB: People who didn’t develop swellings invariably died. People with swellings might have a chance.
Mortality Rate: 30-75 %
If 40% of population was getting infected, and 80% of them died = mortality rate of 32%

The Pneumonic Plague
Second most commonly seen form of the Black Death
The Pneumonic Plague
Infected the lungs.
Symptoms:
Slimy sputum tinted with blood
(Sputum = saliva mixed with mucus excreted
from the respiratory system)
Sputum became free flowing
1-7 days for symptoms to appear
Mortality Rate : 90-95%


The Pneumonic Plague
Airborne transmission – added to its danger!
Through bacteria in droplets of saliva coughed up by sick persons
Inhaled by bystanders
New infection starts directly in the lungs or throat.
The Septicemic Plague
Attacked the blood system (Blood Poisoning)
Fevers
Skin turns deep shades of purple due to DIC
(disseminated
intravascular
coagulation)

The Septicemic Plague
In its most deadly form, DIC causes a victim’s skin to turn dark purple, almost black = The Black Death.

Victims died the same day symptoms appeared.

Mortality Rate: close to 100%.

No treatment even today
Transmission of the Bubonic and Septicemic Plague
Direct contact with a Flea
The Bacteria (Yersinia pestis) carried by rodents
Fleas infest animals, primarily rats
Then move to human hosts
The oriental rat flea, Xenopsylla cheopis
The Rat Flea
The flea drinks rat’s blood
The bacteria multiplies inside the flea
The flea’s stomach is blocked
The flea is very hungry
The flea voraciously bites a host = a human
The flea is unable to satisfy its hunger
The flea continues to feed
Infected blood carrying the plague bacteria is flowing into the human’s wound
The rat dies
The flea dies of starvation
The human dies

Global Impact
Chinese population declined from 123 million in 1200 to 65 million 1393.
In Europe the Black Death killed an estimated 25 million people, reducing the total population by 25-40 per cent.
England, Italy, France, Poland, Russia and the Balkans are said to have lost 50 per cent of their populations.
Labour shortages hit food production; wage labour was introduced to attract workers; wages increased.
Cities became more important - growth of the bourgeoisie.
Net effect – collapse of feudalism, beginnings of modern capitalism.
Quotes on the Black Death
Boccacio: The victims “ate lunch with their friend and dinner with their ancestors in paradise”
Samuel Pepys: “Realizing what a deadly disaster had come to them the people quickly drove the Italians from their city… Fathers abandoned their sick sons. Lawyers refused to come and make out wills for the dying. Friars and nuns were left to care for the sick…Bodies were left in empty houses, and there was no one to give them a Christian burial.”