Early Ecclesiastical Centres
Skellig Michael: Early Church Sites
Skellig Michael
Skellig Michael: Hermitage
Moyne, near Shrule, County Mayo
Lusk, Co. Dublin
Early Ecclesiastical Centres
•Christianity was probably first introduced to Ireland sometime at the very end of the 4th century AD or early in the 5th century AD
•The earliest church sites are not easy to identify or date
•Sometimes only placename evidence survives
Early Ecclesiastical Centres
•Earliest church developed as members of the aristocracy were converted by the earliest missionary/converts (such as St. Patrick)
•Initial Christianisation appears to occur in the south half of Ireland and spreads to the northern half by around 450-460 AD
Early Ecclesiastical Centres
•As the earliest churches were associated with the aristocracy, the early parish and bishopric boundaries tend to be similar to the early kingdoms or chiefdoms in Ireland
•As a result – the power of bishops was confined to their own kingdom
Early Ecclesiastical Centres
•Monastic sites and hermitage emerge that are independent of the parish-bishopric system
•They appear to have been given separate endowments and are economically independent
•Successful monasteries are able to set up or acquire additional monasteries and increase their prestige
•This system survives in various forms until the arrival of the Normans in the 12th century AD
Early Ecclesiastical Centres
•These early Christian centres often survive today as large enclosures, sometimes with multiple concentric earthworks or ditches.
•Today these are often only visible as crop marks from the air.
•In some cases, only the placename evidence survives:
–Cell often anglicised as Kill
–Domhnaig often anglicised as Donagh or Downey
–Teampall often anglicised as Temple
Nendrum,Co. Down
Nendrum
Eccelesiastical Enclosures: Typical features
•St. Johns Point, Co. Down
•Some early styles of church may be associated with an enclosure.
Eccelesiastical Enclosures: Typical features
•Gallarus Oratory
Eccelesiastical Enclosures: Typical features
•Round towers date from the 10th century to around 1200.
Eccelesiastical Enclosures: Typical features
•These are the north cross (top) and south cross (bottom) at Ahenny at Kilclispin.
•They are among the earliest high crosses that were manufactured and represent a translation into stone of a style of wood and metal crosses.
•They are over 3 m in height.
•They date to the late 8th to the early 9th century AD.
Ahenny, Co. Tipperary
•These are the north cross (top) and south cross (bottom) at Ahenny at Kilclispin.
•They are among the earliest high crosses that were manufactured and represent a translation into stone of a style of wood and metal crosses.
•They are over 3 m in height.
•They date to the late 8th to the early 9th century AD.
Eccelesiastical Enclosures: Typical features
•Decorated grave slabs may be the only evidence.
•Rathdown slabs and Tau cross Killegar, County Wicklow
Eccelesiastical Enclosures: Typical features
•These two of Rathdown slabs are examples from Rathfarnham and Rathmichael both did appear to have marked actual graves.
•They date to the 9th and 10th century AD.
Eccelesiastical Enclosures: Typical features
•Cross slabsFahan, Co. Donegal
Eccelesiastical Enclosures: Typical features
•Cross slabsInishmurray (off Sligo coast)
Eccelesiastical Enclosures: Typical features
•Bullaun Stones
•Usually natural rocks or boulders with deliberate hollows.
•Often found on ecclesiastical sites.
•Their origin and date is obscure, but they are at least medieval in date.
Eccelesiastical Enclosures: Typical features
•Mount Offaly, Cabinteely (ESSO Station)
•Enclosed cemetery site
–3 ditches
– 6 phases
–>1500 burials
•Finds: Local material
•Finds: Imported material
•Industrial remains
Cabinteely: Burial Types
Cabinteely: Burials
Cabinteely: Phase 1
Cabinteely: Phase 2
Cabinteely: Phase 3
Cabinteely: Phase 4
Cabinteely: Phase 5
Cabinteely: Phase 6
Cabinteely: Finds
Souterrains
Main publication: Mark Clinton, The souterrains of Ireland.
INTRODUCTION
Souterrains are underground passages
They are usually built of stone but can also be tunnelled into rock or compact clay or gravel.
Souterrains are sometimes found apparently independent of any enclosure and are also found in Early Christian ecclesiastical enclosures.
Places of refuge
Places for storage
Distribution
It had been suggested that two factors influenced the distribution of souterrains:
The prevailing soil type
The prevailing geology
The local distributions do not reflect ‘political’ units
Some features (e.g. trapdoors) are found in particular areas and suggest local building ‘schools’
Donaghmore, Co. Louth
Donaghmore, Co. Louth
Donaghmore, Co. Louth
Newrath BigKellsCo. Meath
Coolcran,Co. FermanaghWooden souterrainoaks found that were dated to 822+/-9 AD
Tateetra, County Louth
Tateetra, showing cross-inscribed slab (see www.aegisarchaeology.com)
Newtownbalregan, County LouthRingfort and Souterrain (from www.nra.ie)
Newtownbalregan, County Louth
Newtownbalregan, County Louth
Roof slab – re-used from elsewhere – is covered in megalithic art.
Carn More, County Louth(from www.nra.ie)
Dunisky, Co. CorkRock-cut souterrain
Entrance TypesRamp
Entrance TypesPit-drop
Entrance TypesShaft
Entrance TypesStepped
Entrance TypesHatch
Passage and constrictions
Passages either unrestricted or restricted.
Unrestricted passage have no additions to impede access or movement.
Restricted passages can contain various features to make movement difficult such as:
An extremely narrow section of passage
A reduced roof height (e.g. a crawl space)
Porthole Slabs
Porthole Slabs(Smerwick, Co. Kerry)
Armoy,Co. Antrim
Chambers
Chambers can be various shapes:
Elliptical
Circular
Rectangular
Oblong (where the passage merely widens)
Undifferentiated (where there is no distinction between the passage and the chamber)
Donaghmore, Co. Louth
Rectangular chamber
Drumadoon, Co. Antrim
Oblong chamber
Trapdoors
Deliberate obstruction placed in passage or chamber
May include covering devices
Other features
Steps and stepped features (such as sudden drops)
Air vents and drains
Cobblestone and paving
Internal (wooden) doors
Cupboards and cubbyholes such as the one below from Guilford in Westmeath
Dating
Earliest dates are from 7th or 8th century AD
Latest dates are from the 13th or 14th century AD (such as finds of medieval pottery from construction material).
Drumadoon, Co. Antrim
Drumadoon, Co. Antrim
INTRODUCTION
Souterrains are underground passages
They are usually built of stone but can also be tunnelled into rock or compact clay or gravel.
Souterrains are sometimes found apparently independent of any enclosure and are also found in Early Christian ecclesiastical enclosures.
Places of refuge
Places for storage
Distribution
It had been suggested that two factors influenced the distribution of souterrains:
The prevailing soil type
The prevailing geology
The local distributions do not reflect ‘political’ units
Some features (e.g. trapdoors) are found in particular areas and suggest local building ‘schools’
Donaghmore, Co. Louth
Donaghmore, Co. Louth
Donaghmore, Co. Louth
Newrath BigKellsCo. Meath
Coolcran,Co. FermanaghWooden souterrainoaks found that were dated to 822+/-9 AD
Tateetra, County Louth
Tateetra, showing cross-inscribed slab (see www.aegisarchaeology.com)
Newtownbalregan, County LouthRingfort and Souterrain (from www.nra.ie)
Newtownbalregan, County Louth
Newtownbalregan, County Louth
Roof slab – re-used from elsewhere – is covered in megalithic art.
Carn More, County Louth(from www.nra.ie)
Dunisky, Co. CorkRock-cut souterrain
Entrance TypesRamp
Entrance TypesPit-drop
Entrance TypesShaft
Entrance TypesStepped
Entrance TypesHatch
Passage and constrictions
Passages either unrestricted or restricted.
Unrestricted passage have no additions to impede access or movement.
Restricted passages can contain various features to make movement difficult such as:
An extremely narrow section of passage
A reduced roof height (e.g. a crawl space)
Porthole Slabs
Porthole Slabs(Smerwick, Co. Kerry)
Armoy,Co. Antrim
Chambers
Chambers can be various shapes:
Elliptical
Circular
Rectangular
Oblong (where the passage merely widens)
Undifferentiated (where there is no distinction between the passage and the chamber)
Donaghmore, Co. Louth
Rectangular chamber
Drumadoon, Co. Antrim
Oblong chamber
Trapdoors
Deliberate obstruction placed in passage or chamber
May include covering devices
Other features
Steps and stepped features (such as sudden drops)
Air vents and drains
Cobblestone and paving
Internal (wooden) doors
Cupboards and cubbyholes such as the one below from Guilford in Westmeath
Dating
Earliest dates are from 7th or 8th century AD
Latest dates are from the 13th or 14th century AD (such as finds of medieval pottery from construction material).
Drumadoon, Co. Antrim
Drumadoon, Co. Antrim
Crannogs
Name derives from Irish word ‘crann’ meaning a tree (referring to the wooden elements of a ‘crannog’).
The terms ‘inis’ and ‘oilean’ are also found in texts (usually pre-9th century). Both mean island and often refer to crannogs.
Ballydoolough
Lough Boora
A lake settlement site at Lough Boora from the earlier Mesolithic (8000-6500 BC) also has been identified as similar in nature to a crannog.
Earliest
Some crannog or artifical islands or platforms are known from the Mesolithic.
These include sites like Lough Gara where platforms of stone as shown here produced Mesolithic finds.
Lough Gara
Rathjordan
Some crannogs or lake settlements also appear to have been built in the Neolithic such as at Rathjordan shown here.
Moynagh Lough
At other sites, activity near artificial islands is quite different.
At Moynagh Lough – a well known lake settlement – there was a major find of a hoard of flint objects.
Cullyhanna
Lake settlements like these are more widely known from the Bronze Age.
Such as Cullyhanna shown here.
Cullyhanna, Co. Armagh
Ballinderry
Clonfinlough
Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath
Lisnacrogher
Craigywarren, Co. Antrim
Main publication: The Archaeology of Lake Settlement by Aidan O'Sullivan
The terms ‘inis’ and ‘oilean’ are also found in texts (usually pre-9th century). Both mean island and often refer to crannogs.
Ballydoolough
Lough Boora
A lake settlement site at Lough Boora from the earlier Mesolithic (8000-6500 BC) also has been identified as similar in nature to a crannog.
Earliest
Some crannog or artifical islands or platforms are known from the Mesolithic.
These include sites like Lough Gara where platforms of stone as shown here produced Mesolithic finds.
Lough Gara
Rathjordan
Some crannogs or lake settlements also appear to have been built in the Neolithic such as at Rathjordan shown here.
Moynagh Lough
At other sites, activity near artificial islands is quite different.
At Moynagh Lough – a well known lake settlement – there was a major find of a hoard of flint objects.
Cullyhanna
Lake settlements like these are more widely known from the Bronze Age.
Such as Cullyhanna shown here.
Cullyhanna, Co. Armagh
Ballinderry
Clonfinlough
Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath
Lisnacrogher
Craigywarren, Co. Antrim
Main publication: The Archaeology of Lake Settlement by Aidan O'Sullivan
Hillforts
Hillforts and Coastal Promontory Forts
A number of hilltop enclosures are identified as a distinct type of monument
While ringforts and cashels are known from the top of hills, in general, a hillfort is an enclosure placed around the summit of a hill which is larger than a ringfort or a cashel
Rathcoran, County Wicklow
Rathcoran in County Wicklow
Here there is a hillfort
A later ringfort stands in the centre (on top of a passage tomb)
Rathcoran, Co. Wicklow Plan
Rathcoran, Co. Wicklow
Passage Tomb
Types of Hillfort
A small number of basic types of hillfort can be recognised in Ireland
Hillforts where there is a single line of earthworks enclosing the summit of a hill
Hillforts where there are multiple lines of earthworks
Inland Promontory Forts
Hillforts with a single line of defences
Hillforts where there is a single line of earthworks enclosing the summit of a hill
Univallate
Typically enclose an area of 2 – 9 hectares (20,000 to 90,000 m²)
Previously people would include various sites in this category that would not be considered as ‘hillforts’ (e.g. Navan Fort in County Armagh)
Hillforts with a single line of defences
The enclosed area can sometimes include an earlier burial mound
It is unclear how we should interpret this:
Is it necessary to enclose a mound to ‘sanctify’ the site
Or, was just impossible to find a hill without a pre-existing mound?
Hillforts with a single line of defencesDownshill, Co. Wicklow
Hillforts with a single line of defencesDownshill, Co. Wicklow
Hillforts with a single line of defencesBallybuckley, Co. Wexford
Knocknashee,Co. Sligo
Hut sites, passage tombs and other features in the interior
Garrangrena Lower, Co. Tipperary
Hillforts with a single line of defences
Few excavated examples with dating evidence
Freestone Hill, Co. Kilkenny. Excavated by Gerhard Bersu, finds included a 4th century AD Roman coin but no clear idea of date of construction. There is also one unreliable radiocarbon date of 810-550 BC.
Knocknacarrigeen in Co. Galway and Clenagh in Co. Clare have been investigated but neither produced a date for the construction of the ramparts
Hillforts with a single line of defencesBrusselstown Ring, Co. Wicklow
Hillforts with a single line of defencesBrusselstown Ring, Co. Wicklow
Hillforts with a single line of defences
Brusselstown Ring in County Wicklow is actually part of a series of hill top earthworks that includes the enclosed summit of Spinans Hill
Hillforts to the North-east of Baltinglass
Hillforts with multiple lines of defence
Hillforts where there are a more than one line of earthworks enclosing the summit of a hill
Multivallate
Generally have two or three lines of rampart that are often widely spaced
The enclosed area can be up to 20 hectares (200,000 m²)
Rathgall (also known as Rath East)Co. Wicklow
Rathgall, Co. WicklowCentral enclosure in the Late Bronze Age
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceMooghaun Fort, Co. Clare
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceMooghaun Fort, Co. Clare
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
Excavated by Prof. Jim Mallory
Three concentric circles of trenches investigated
Also produced some evidence of internal structures
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
A number of sections were excavated across the lines of the ramparts
Only the ditches survived as no traces of banks were recorded
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
Ditch was waterlogged allowing for the survival of wooden finds and other organic material
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
Investigation of the interior produced evidence of various pits and postholes suggesting there were structures within the innermost ditch
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
Features in the interior of Haughey’s Fort
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
Finds from the interior include bronze rings, a gold stud and a fragment of the handle of a decorated bronze cup
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
Stone with rock art from pit in the interior
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceGrianan Aileach, Co. Donegal
Stone Forts: Staigue, Co. Kerry
Dun Aonghusa, Inis Mór, Aran Islands
Excavation has shown that the earliest phases of Dun Aonghusa begin in the later stages of the Bronze Age.
Dún Dúchathair, Inis Mór
Promontory Forts
A number of promontories cut off either by stone walls or ditches are recognised as a distinct class of site – Promontory Forts
These can either be coastal or, occasionally, on inland promontories
Inland Promontory Forts
Few have been investigated
Knockdhu,Co. Antrim
McArts Fort, Cavehill, Co. Antrim
A number of hilltop enclosures are identified as a distinct type of monument
While ringforts and cashels are known from the top of hills, in general, a hillfort is an enclosure placed around the summit of a hill which is larger than a ringfort or a cashel
Rathcoran, County Wicklow
Rathcoran in County Wicklow
Here there is a hillfort
A later ringfort stands in the centre (on top of a passage tomb)
Rathcoran, Co. Wicklow Plan
Rathcoran, Co. Wicklow
Passage Tomb
Types of Hillfort
A small number of basic types of hillfort can be recognised in Ireland
Hillforts where there is a single line of earthworks enclosing the summit of a hill
Hillforts where there are multiple lines of earthworks
Inland Promontory Forts
Hillforts with a single line of defences
Hillforts where there is a single line of earthworks enclosing the summit of a hill
Univallate
Typically enclose an area of 2 – 9 hectares (20,000 to 90,000 m²)
Previously people would include various sites in this category that would not be considered as ‘hillforts’ (e.g. Navan Fort in County Armagh)
Hillforts with a single line of defences
The enclosed area can sometimes include an earlier burial mound
It is unclear how we should interpret this:
Is it necessary to enclose a mound to ‘sanctify’ the site
Or, was just impossible to find a hill without a pre-existing mound?
Hillforts with a single line of defencesDownshill, Co. Wicklow
Hillforts with a single line of defencesDownshill, Co. Wicklow
Hillforts with a single line of defencesBallybuckley, Co. Wexford
Knocknashee,Co. Sligo
Hut sites, passage tombs and other features in the interior
Garrangrena Lower, Co. Tipperary
Hillforts with a single line of defences
Few excavated examples with dating evidence
Freestone Hill, Co. Kilkenny. Excavated by Gerhard Bersu, finds included a 4th century AD Roman coin but no clear idea of date of construction. There is also one unreliable radiocarbon date of 810-550 BC.
Knocknacarrigeen in Co. Galway and Clenagh in Co. Clare have been investigated but neither produced a date for the construction of the ramparts
Hillforts with a single line of defencesBrusselstown Ring, Co. Wicklow
Hillforts with a single line of defencesBrusselstown Ring, Co. Wicklow
Hillforts with a single line of defences
Brusselstown Ring in County Wicklow is actually part of a series of hill top earthworks that includes the enclosed summit of Spinans Hill
Hillforts to the North-east of Baltinglass
Hillforts with multiple lines of defence
Hillforts where there are a more than one line of earthworks enclosing the summit of a hill
Multivallate
Generally have two or three lines of rampart that are often widely spaced
The enclosed area can be up to 20 hectares (200,000 m²)
Rathgall (also known as Rath East)Co. Wicklow
Rathgall, Co. WicklowCentral enclosure in the Late Bronze Age
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceMooghaun Fort, Co. Clare
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceMooghaun Fort, Co. Clare
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
Excavated by Prof. Jim Mallory
Three concentric circles of trenches investigated
Also produced some evidence of internal structures
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
A number of sections were excavated across the lines of the ramparts
Only the ditches survived as no traces of banks were recorded
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
Ditch was waterlogged allowing for the survival of wooden finds and other organic material
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
Investigation of the interior produced evidence of various pits and postholes suggesting there were structures within the innermost ditch
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
Features in the interior of Haughey’s Fort
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
Finds from the interior include bronze rings, a gold stud and a fragment of the handle of a decorated bronze cup
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceHaughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh
Stone with rock art from pit in the interior
Hillforts with multiple lines of defenceGrianan Aileach, Co. Donegal
Stone Forts: Staigue, Co. Kerry
Dun Aonghusa, Inis Mór, Aran Islands
Excavation has shown that the earliest phases of Dun Aonghusa begin in the later stages of the Bronze Age.
Dún Dúchathair, Inis Mór
Promontory Forts
A number of promontories cut off either by stone walls or ditches are recognised as a distinct class of site – Promontory Forts
These can either be coastal or, occasionally, on inland promontories
Inland Promontory Forts
Few have been investigated
Knockdhu,Co. Antrim
McArts Fort, Cavehill, Co. Antrim
Ringforts
Ringforts
• Introduction
• Distribution and Socio-Economic Model
• Chronology
• Hughes’ Lot East Multivallate Ringfort: human factors
• Case Study: Deerpark Farms
• Summary
Ringforts: introduction
• Normally considered to be dwelling places
• Circular earth and stone structures that houses and huts were built within
• Some defensive features but, unlike castles, not built to withstand sieges.
– Probably to withstand small raiding parties until nearby help arrived
• Banks made from ditch material
– or cashel walls from stone
• Could have been used for controlling and protecting livestock
– Rustlers
– Predators
• Enclosure probably also a status symbol
– Early Irish law indicates that a base client had to build and maintain the ‘Dun’ of his flaith (lord)
• Enclosing the home: a territorial and privacy statement
• Some protection from the elements
• Normally built of readily available materials: earth and stone
• Ditch is outside the innermost bank
– Unlike burial barrow or ritual site
• Sometimes more than one bank and ditch: multivallate
• Like modern rural houses, often placed in locations that were probably the best compromise between
– Views
– Shelter
– Warmth
– Drainage
– Access via roads, lakes etc.
• Proximity to:
– Workplace
– Family
– Neighbours
– Social or religious centre
– Drinking Water
– Food
– Other resources like timber etc.
Ringfort distribution: insular
• Up to c. 50,000 ringforts known from maps and field survey
• Most numerous archaeological monument in Ireland
• Many still highly visible
• M Stout believes broadly representative of EMA settlement patterns
• Survival might have been greater in medieval Gaelic regions
• Tradition, beliefs and superstition: ‘fairy forts’
• Some studies of cropmarks in Leinster demonstrate destruction prior to OS c. 1840
• Some of the best soil areas have low density of ringforts
• Less common in mountainous areas
Ringforts: size matters
What is the due of a king who is always in residence at the head of his tüath? Seven score feet [43m] of perfect feet are the measure of his [internal] stockade on every side. Seven feet [2m] are the thickness of its earth—work, and twelve feet [4m] its depth. It is then that he is a king, when ramparts of vassalage surround him. What is the rampart of vassalage? Twelve feet [4m] are the breadth of its opening and its depth and it measure towards the stockade. Thirty feet [9m] are its measure outwardly.
From Irish law text Crith Gablach c. 700AD Stout 1997
• Irish law was schematic and probably aspirational rather than strictly adhered to
• But these measurements conform broadly with the archaeological evidence
– Average ringfort internal diameter is c. 30m
– But some of those at royal centres like Rathcroghan are much larger
– Cashels (stone ringforts) tend to be smaller
Ringforts, landscape and society: SW midlands model based on results of detailed study
• High status bivallate ringfort close to church centre
• Provides focus and possible defensive support for smaller upland ringforts
• Large but lesser status multi-functional ringforts are focus for other clusters of low status ringforts
– And might provide resources or specialist services (e.g. metalworking) for high status site
• Ringfort size, number of enclosures, distance from others, proximity to important facilities (e.g. church or road), artefacts produced etc. said to represent hierarchical society
• Study of Clogher ringforts and environs Note proximity of royal ringfort to church, major roads, and rivers
EMA Tuath: Social and Economic Model
Stout 1997
• Like Early Irish Law: very schematic
• But accords well with early texts and with ringfort and church distribution studies
• Prior to Vikings Irish economy and settlement was overwhelmingly rural:
• And dispersed farmsteads rather than villages
• Or ‘dispersed villages’
Ringforts: Farmsteads
• Fields radiating from ringfort near Newbliss, Co. Monaghan
Ringforts: intervisibility for defence in depth
• Study of overlapping ‘visual territories’ in Braid Valley, Co. Antrim Stout 1997
• All ringforts were in this study visual ‘contact’ with at least one other
– Some with as many as 17 others
Ringforts: chronology
• Radiocarbon and dendrochronology dates from settlement types
• Most ringforts constructed between 600-900AD
• Some, like Feerwore Co. Galway, said to be Iron Age but dating evidence inconclusive.
• Some occupied until end of Middle Ages
Bivallate Ringfort at Hughes’ Lot East, Cashel, Co. Tipperary
• Approximately 18% of ringforts are bivallate
• Female skeleton from inner ditch
(skull damaged on discovery)
The dog at Hughes’ Lot East (2003)
• Ditch had partly silted up before the pit was cut as a dog grave
• Worker and Pet?
Inside the Ringfort: Case Study of Deerpark Farms, Co. Fermanagh
• Ringfort 25m in diameter
• Stone-paved entrance at E directly to door of main 7m building from 8th century AD
• Visitors directed to public space
• Like parlour?
• Figure of 8 layout: also known from ritual sites and conjoined Iron Age burial sites
Deerpark Farms: unusual preservation of internal structures
• Site became waterlogged: anaerobic preservation of organic materials – especially wooden structures
• Evidence for c. 25 houses within central area (but only a handful standing at any one time)
• Collapsed old house roofs, frames, walls etc. were left in situ and new ones built above these
• Site became elevated as a result of this: like a ‘tell’ site
• Water table rose and preserved organic material
South side of the mound encased in stone in the penultimate phase of heightening (note water table is above lowest level of site)
• The nature of the evidence from the 8th century settlement would be broadly in line with the EIL status of a modest free farmer
• But the later stone revetments could suggest that their descendants were of, or aspired to, higher status – that of ‘Cashel’ or ‘Dun’ dwellers
Example of a ‘cashel’ or stone ringfort atLeacanabuaile, Co. Kerry: probably higher status than earthen one (unless land is stony)
Front of waterlogged remains of Deerpark 7m house
Pit in entrance is where doorjambs were removed
Doorjambs of 4m house
• Dated by dendrochronology to 648 AD
• Older than earliest Carbon 14 result from this phase
• Probably re-used from earlier house
• As the jambs from 7m house were later
Figure of 8 arrangement at rear of 7m house
Reconstruction of wicker house based on Deerpark Farms evidence
Wicker was woven like a very large basket
The walls of the 7m house had cavity insulation between inner and outer wickerwork walls(black layer above ranging rod)
This was created by packing moss, straw and heather into the void
• Deerpark Farms model of 7m house and annexe
• Note cavities
• And central hearth:
• Constantly lit for heat, cooking, light?
Last from Deerpark Farms
• Left foot but for making right shoe:
• Stitched when over the last and then turned inside-out to wear
• Worn-out shoes found during excavation
Iron candle holder that was set at end of (mobile) stick
Small Shears: variety of purposes
• Human hair cut at both ends was found in midden (rubbish) pits
Souterrains: beneath some ringforts
Next Week
Ringforts: summary
• Circular ditch and bank enclosures within which houses and other structures were built
– Normally made of earth and stone
– Sometimes mainly stone – cashels
• Vast majority are between 15 and 45 metres in internal diameter
• Normally only produce modest finds
• Large multivallate ringforts produce higher status finds
• Vast majority were probably dispersed family farmsteads
• Main period of construction c. 600-900AD
• Houses and huts were almost always made of timber
– Little survives other than postholes and hearths
• But unusual preservation conditions at Deerpark Farms has provided much evidence for construction and use
– And has demonstrated considerable correlation with descriptions from 7th century Irish texts
• Like all settlements, their location in the landscape was influenced by a number of factors
• There is some evidence for a ringfort hierarchy that might reflect the prevailing social system
• Even though they must be used carefully, Early Irish texts are a very useful and interesting aid to archaeology
Recommended Reading: Early Medieval Settlements
Edwards, N. (1990) The Archaeology of Early Medieval Ireland. Routledge, London
Stout, M. (1997) The Irish ringfort. Four Courts Press. Dublin.
Deerpark Farms (EHSDOENI): http://www.ehsni.gov.uk/built/monuments/deerPark001.shtml
Very good value and indispensable companions for Early Medieval Ireland archaeology scholars or enthusiasts:
• Kelly, F. (1988) A Guide to Early Irish Law. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. Dublin.
• Kelly, F. (1998) Early Irish Farming. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. Dublin.
• Introduction
• Distribution and Socio-Economic Model
• Chronology
• Hughes’ Lot East Multivallate Ringfort: human factors
• Case Study: Deerpark Farms
• Summary
Ringforts: introduction
• Normally considered to be dwelling places
• Circular earth and stone structures that houses and huts were built within
• Some defensive features but, unlike castles, not built to withstand sieges.
– Probably to withstand small raiding parties until nearby help arrived
• Banks made from ditch material
– or cashel walls from stone
• Could have been used for controlling and protecting livestock
– Rustlers
– Predators
• Enclosure probably also a status symbol
– Early Irish law indicates that a base client had to build and maintain the ‘Dun’ of his flaith (lord)
• Enclosing the home: a territorial and privacy statement
• Some protection from the elements
• Normally built of readily available materials: earth and stone
• Ditch is outside the innermost bank
– Unlike burial barrow or ritual site
• Sometimes more than one bank and ditch: multivallate
• Like modern rural houses, often placed in locations that were probably the best compromise between
– Views
– Shelter
– Warmth
– Drainage
– Access via roads, lakes etc.
• Proximity to:
– Workplace
– Family
– Neighbours
– Social or religious centre
– Drinking Water
– Food
– Other resources like timber etc.
Ringfort distribution: insular
• Up to c. 50,000 ringforts known from maps and field survey
• Most numerous archaeological monument in Ireland
• Many still highly visible
• M Stout believes broadly representative of EMA settlement patterns
• Survival might have been greater in medieval Gaelic regions
• Tradition, beliefs and superstition: ‘fairy forts’
• Some studies of cropmarks in Leinster demonstrate destruction prior to OS c. 1840
• Some of the best soil areas have low density of ringforts
• Less common in mountainous areas
Ringforts: size matters
What is the due of a king who is always in residence at the head of his tüath? Seven score feet [43m] of perfect feet are the measure of his [internal] stockade on every side. Seven feet [2m] are the thickness of its earth—work, and twelve feet [4m] its depth. It is then that he is a king, when ramparts of vassalage surround him. What is the rampart of vassalage? Twelve feet [4m] are the breadth of its opening and its depth and it measure towards the stockade. Thirty feet [9m] are its measure outwardly.
From Irish law text Crith Gablach c. 700AD Stout 1997
• Irish law was schematic and probably aspirational rather than strictly adhered to
• But these measurements conform broadly with the archaeological evidence
– Average ringfort internal diameter is c. 30m
– But some of those at royal centres like Rathcroghan are much larger
– Cashels (stone ringforts) tend to be smaller
Ringforts, landscape and society: SW midlands model based on results of detailed study
• High status bivallate ringfort close to church centre
• Provides focus and possible defensive support for smaller upland ringforts
• Large but lesser status multi-functional ringforts are focus for other clusters of low status ringforts
– And might provide resources or specialist services (e.g. metalworking) for high status site
• Ringfort size, number of enclosures, distance from others, proximity to important facilities (e.g. church or road), artefacts produced etc. said to represent hierarchical society
• Study of Clogher ringforts and environs Note proximity of royal ringfort to church, major roads, and rivers
EMA Tuath: Social and Economic Model
Stout 1997
• Like Early Irish Law: very schematic
• But accords well with early texts and with ringfort and church distribution studies
• Prior to Vikings Irish economy and settlement was overwhelmingly rural:
• And dispersed farmsteads rather than villages
• Or ‘dispersed villages’
Ringforts: Farmsteads
• Fields radiating from ringfort near Newbliss, Co. Monaghan
Ringforts: intervisibility for defence in depth
• Study of overlapping ‘visual territories’ in Braid Valley, Co. Antrim Stout 1997
• All ringforts were in this study visual ‘contact’ with at least one other
– Some with as many as 17 others
Ringforts: chronology
• Radiocarbon and dendrochronology dates from settlement types
• Most ringforts constructed between 600-900AD
• Some, like Feerwore Co. Galway, said to be Iron Age but dating evidence inconclusive.
• Some occupied until end of Middle Ages
Bivallate Ringfort at Hughes’ Lot East, Cashel, Co. Tipperary
• Approximately 18% of ringforts are bivallate
• Female skeleton from inner ditch
(skull damaged on discovery)
The dog at Hughes’ Lot East (2003)
• Ditch had partly silted up before the pit was cut as a dog grave
• Worker and Pet?
Inside the Ringfort: Case Study of Deerpark Farms, Co. Fermanagh
• Ringfort 25m in diameter
• Stone-paved entrance at E directly to door of main 7m building from 8th century AD
• Visitors directed to public space
• Like parlour?
• Figure of 8 layout: also known from ritual sites and conjoined Iron Age burial sites
Deerpark Farms: unusual preservation of internal structures
• Site became waterlogged: anaerobic preservation of organic materials – especially wooden structures
• Evidence for c. 25 houses within central area (but only a handful standing at any one time)
• Collapsed old house roofs, frames, walls etc. were left in situ and new ones built above these
• Site became elevated as a result of this: like a ‘tell’ site
• Water table rose and preserved organic material
South side of the mound encased in stone in the penultimate phase of heightening (note water table is above lowest level of site)
• The nature of the evidence from the 8th century settlement would be broadly in line with the EIL status of a modest free farmer
• But the later stone revetments could suggest that their descendants were of, or aspired to, higher status – that of ‘Cashel’ or ‘Dun’ dwellers
Example of a ‘cashel’ or stone ringfort atLeacanabuaile, Co. Kerry: probably higher status than earthen one (unless land is stony)
Front of waterlogged remains of Deerpark 7m house
Pit in entrance is where doorjambs were removed
Doorjambs of 4m house
• Dated by dendrochronology to 648 AD
• Older than earliest Carbon 14 result from this phase
• Probably re-used from earlier house
• As the jambs from 7m house were later
Figure of 8 arrangement at rear of 7m house
Reconstruction of wicker house based on Deerpark Farms evidence
Wicker was woven like a very large basket
The walls of the 7m house had cavity insulation between inner and outer wickerwork walls(black layer above ranging rod)
This was created by packing moss, straw and heather into the void
• Deerpark Farms model of 7m house and annexe
• Note cavities
• And central hearth:
• Constantly lit for heat, cooking, light?
Last from Deerpark Farms
• Left foot but for making right shoe:
• Stitched when over the last and then turned inside-out to wear
• Worn-out shoes found during excavation
Iron candle holder that was set at end of (mobile) stick
Small Shears: variety of purposes
• Human hair cut at both ends was found in midden (rubbish) pits
Souterrains: beneath some ringforts
Next Week
Ringforts: summary
• Circular ditch and bank enclosures within which houses and other structures were built
– Normally made of earth and stone
– Sometimes mainly stone – cashels
• Vast majority are between 15 and 45 metres in internal diameter
• Normally only produce modest finds
• Large multivallate ringforts produce higher status finds
• Vast majority were probably dispersed family farmsteads
• Main period of construction c. 600-900AD
• Houses and huts were almost always made of timber
– Little survives other than postholes and hearths
• But unusual preservation conditions at Deerpark Farms has provided much evidence for construction and use
– And has demonstrated considerable correlation with descriptions from 7th century Irish texts
• Like all settlements, their location in the landscape was influenced by a number of factors
• There is some evidence for a ringfort hierarchy that might reflect the prevailing social system
• Even though they must be used carefully, Early Irish texts are a very useful and interesting aid to archaeology
Recommended Reading: Early Medieval Settlements
Edwards, N. (1990) The Archaeology of Early Medieval Ireland. Routledge, London
Stout, M. (1997) The Irish ringfort. Four Courts Press. Dublin.
Deerpark Farms (EHSDOENI): http://www.ehsni.gov.uk/built/monuments/deerPark001.shtml
Very good value and indispensable companions for Early Medieval Ireland archaeology scholars or enthusiasts:
• Kelly, F. (1988) A Guide to Early Irish Law. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. Dublin.
• Kelly, F. (1998) Early Irish Farming. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. Dublin.
Geodetic and Geophysical Survey
Geodetic…
…is the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the earth.
Geodetic Survey
•Geodetic survey is the basic form of mapping used by archaeologists to accurately record three dimensional information about landscapes, buildings and monuments.
•Basic equipment that is used includes dumpy levels for recording relative heights and measured surveys (analogue and digital) for spatial information.
•Some laser survey equipment is now available which records in 3-D.
Dumpy Levels and Tapes
•Most basic techniques are ancient – they were known to classical societies.
The height of a known point is taken with a dumpy level.This forms the basis for a contour plan.
ContourMap
•Manual survey of Navan Fort.
•Hand-drawn contour plans based on measured surveys
Various conventions used on plans/maps
•‘Hachures’ used to indicate slopes
Electronic Distance Meter (EDM)
•Records the position digitally
Round Island
Co. Down
•Top is a contour plan created in a programme called Surfer. It is shaded to enhance features on the island.
•The bottom map is an interpretation.
Tara
•Detailed topographic survey
Tara
•Geophysical surveys
What is Geophysics?
•The subsurface site characterization of the geology, geological structure, groundwater, contamination, and human artifacts beneath the Earth's surface, based on the lateral and vertical mapping of physical property variations that are remotely sensed using non-invasive technologies. Many of these technologies are traditionally used for exploration of economic materials such as groundwater, metals, and hydrocarbons.
Eh, so, what is Geophysics??
•The investigation of subsurface conditions through measuring, analyzing and interpreting physical fields at ground surface.
•Some studies determine what is directly below the surface (the upper meter or so); others extend to depths of 10's of meters.
Geophysical Techniques
•Two basic types of Geophysical Techniques are employed:
•Passive surveys of the earths magnetic field
•Measurements of an electrical current sent through the soil
•All of these techniques are often referred to as Remote Sensing.
•They include: Metal Detecting, Resistivity, Ground Penetrating Radar and Magnetometry
Metal Detectors
•Metal detectors are not only popular with members the public who regard their use as an innocent hobby, but also with professional treasure-hunters who plunder sites for profit.
•Most types penetrate the soil only to a very limited extent, but they have been used by archaeologists to locate dispersed metal artefacts.
•In Ireland – all detection devices required a license for their use (from Dept of Environment, Heritage and Local Government and National Museum). The use of metal detectors to search for antiquities is illegal.
Metal Detectors
•Extracts from National Monuments
(Amendment) Act, 1994, Section 7
•7.—(1) A member of the Garda Síochána may without warrant seize and detain— a detection device found in, at the site of, or in the vicinity of, a monument (an archaeological area which stands registered in the register by virtue of section 5 of the Act of 1987; a restricted area; a monument of which the Commissioners or a local authority are the owners or the guardians or in respect of which a preservation order is in force).
Resistivity surveying
•When an electric current is passed through the ground between electrodes, the resistance to its flow may be measured. A current will pass relatively easily through damp soil, but drier compact material such as a buried wall or a cobbled road surface creates higher resistance.
RESULTS FROM DATA LOGGER PLOTTED BY COMPUTER
Ground penetrating radar (GPR)
•Electronic signals are transmitted into the soil, and bounce back to a receiver. The signals are altered by the density and position of whatever they encounter underground, and the patterns received from the ground are plotted diagrammatically.
GPR – Two Basic Methods
•Common Offset Antennae (CO)
–easily interpreted
–quick
–can’t be extensively processed
•Common Mid-Point data (CMP)
–provides info for depth conversion
–slower to acquire
Ground Penetrating Radar
•Using CMPs allows for the recording of the variation in the signal pattern across a profile.
Ground Penetrating Radar
•At each point the length of time it takes the signal to return is logged and digitally corrected. Taking measurements along a particular course gives a profile of the signal at each point:
Ground penetrating radar results
Magnetic surveying
•Deviations can be detected in the general background of the subsoil, indicated by variations in its magnetic field. Several aspects of past human occupation cause suitable anomalies.
Magnetometer
•Various types:
•Proton Magnetometer
•Caesium Vapour Magnetometer
•SQUID (opposite) is ultrasensitive and are used as medical devices to measure brain and cardial activity
Proton Magnetometer
•Inductor creates a strong magnetic field around a hydrogen-rich fluid, causing the protons to align themselves with the newly created field. The field is then interrupted, and as protons are realigned with Earth's magnetic field, spinning protons precess at a specific frequency. This is picked up by the same inductor and the ratio of the two fields is measured.
•Accuracy is okay. Measures in nano-Tesla
•Magnetic impurities in the sensor and errors in the measurement of the frequency are the two causes of errors in these magnetometers.
•Now largely superseded.
Proton Magnetometer
•Both portable and fixed instruments are used.
•This fixed probe is measuring the magnetic activity at the active volcano at Karymsky in Russia
Fluxgate Gradiometer
•Measures the ‘gradient’ of the magnetic susceptibility
•Requires machine to be calibrated each time it used
•Measures susceptibility relative to an arbitrary zero
•Much more accurate than a proton magnetometer
•Data can be downloaded straight to a laptop and viewed almost straightaway
Caesium Vapour Magnetometer
•This is a highly sensitive and accurate device used in archaeological applications.
•The device broadly consists of a photon emitter containing a caesium light emitter or lamp, an absorption chamber containing caesium vapour and a "buffer gas" through which the emitted photons pass, and a photon detector, arranged in that order.
Magnetometers
•Raw data is plotted, then it is filtered and processed using software to try and iron out any irregularities (e.g. different grids)
An interpretation of the results is then drawn up.Ultimately this needs to be tested by excavation. Some people call this ground-truthing or calibration.
For images of geophysical plots see the www.m3motorway.ie website.
…is the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the earth.
Geodetic Survey
•Geodetic survey is the basic form of mapping used by archaeologists to accurately record three dimensional information about landscapes, buildings and monuments.
•Basic equipment that is used includes dumpy levels for recording relative heights and measured surveys (analogue and digital) for spatial information.
•Some laser survey equipment is now available which records in 3-D.
Dumpy Levels and Tapes
•Most basic techniques are ancient – they were known to classical societies.
The height of a known point is taken with a dumpy level.This forms the basis for a contour plan.
ContourMap
•Manual survey of Navan Fort.
•Hand-drawn contour plans based on measured surveys
Various conventions used on plans/maps
•‘Hachures’ used to indicate slopes
Electronic Distance Meter (EDM)
•Records the position digitally
Round Island
Co. Down
•Top is a contour plan created in a programme called Surfer. It is shaded to enhance features on the island.
•The bottom map is an interpretation.
Tara
•Detailed topographic survey
Tara
•Geophysical surveys
What is Geophysics?
•The subsurface site characterization of the geology, geological structure, groundwater, contamination, and human artifacts beneath the Earth's surface, based on the lateral and vertical mapping of physical property variations that are remotely sensed using non-invasive technologies. Many of these technologies are traditionally used for exploration of economic materials such as groundwater, metals, and hydrocarbons.
Eh, so, what is Geophysics??
•The investigation of subsurface conditions through measuring, analyzing and interpreting physical fields at ground surface.
•Some studies determine what is directly below the surface (the upper meter or so); others extend to depths of 10's of meters.
Geophysical Techniques
•Two basic types of Geophysical Techniques are employed:
•Passive surveys of the earths magnetic field
•Measurements of an electrical current sent through the soil
•All of these techniques are often referred to as Remote Sensing.
•They include: Metal Detecting, Resistivity, Ground Penetrating Radar and Magnetometry
Metal Detectors
•Metal detectors are not only popular with members the public who regard their use as an innocent hobby, but also with professional treasure-hunters who plunder sites for profit.
•Most types penetrate the soil only to a very limited extent, but they have been used by archaeologists to locate dispersed metal artefacts.
•In Ireland – all detection devices required a license for their use (from Dept of Environment, Heritage and Local Government and National Museum). The use of metal detectors to search for antiquities is illegal.
Metal Detectors
•Extracts from National Monuments
(Amendment) Act, 1994, Section 7
•7.—(1) A member of the Garda Síochána may without warrant seize and detain— a detection device found in, at the site of, or in the vicinity of, a monument (an archaeological area which stands registered in the register by virtue of section 5 of the Act of 1987; a restricted area; a monument of which the Commissioners or a local authority are the owners or the guardians or in respect of which a preservation order is in force).
Resistivity surveying
•When an electric current is passed through the ground between electrodes, the resistance to its flow may be measured. A current will pass relatively easily through damp soil, but drier compact material such as a buried wall or a cobbled road surface creates higher resistance.
RESULTS FROM DATA LOGGER PLOTTED BY COMPUTER
Ground penetrating radar (GPR)
•Electronic signals are transmitted into the soil, and bounce back to a receiver. The signals are altered by the density and position of whatever they encounter underground, and the patterns received from the ground are plotted diagrammatically.
GPR – Two Basic Methods
•Common Offset Antennae (CO)
–easily interpreted
–quick
–can’t be extensively processed
•Common Mid-Point data (CMP)
–provides info for depth conversion
–slower to acquire
Ground Penetrating Radar
•Using CMPs allows for the recording of the variation in the signal pattern across a profile.
Ground Penetrating Radar
•At each point the length of time it takes the signal to return is logged and digitally corrected. Taking measurements along a particular course gives a profile of the signal at each point:
Ground penetrating radar results
Magnetic surveying
•Deviations can be detected in the general background of the subsoil, indicated by variations in its magnetic field. Several aspects of past human occupation cause suitable anomalies.
Magnetometer
•Various types:
•Proton Magnetometer
•Caesium Vapour Magnetometer
•SQUID (opposite) is ultrasensitive and are used as medical devices to measure brain and cardial activity
Proton Magnetometer
•Inductor creates a strong magnetic field around a hydrogen-rich fluid, causing the protons to align themselves with the newly created field. The field is then interrupted, and as protons are realigned with Earth's magnetic field, spinning protons precess at a specific frequency. This is picked up by the same inductor and the ratio of the two fields is measured.
•Accuracy is okay. Measures in nano-Tesla
•Magnetic impurities in the sensor and errors in the measurement of the frequency are the two causes of errors in these magnetometers.
•Now largely superseded.
Proton Magnetometer
•Both portable and fixed instruments are used.
•This fixed probe is measuring the magnetic activity at the active volcano at Karymsky in Russia
Fluxgate Gradiometer
•Measures the ‘gradient’ of the magnetic susceptibility
•Requires machine to be calibrated each time it used
•Measures susceptibility relative to an arbitrary zero
•Much more accurate than a proton magnetometer
•Data can be downloaded straight to a laptop and viewed almost straightaway
Caesium Vapour Magnetometer
•This is a highly sensitive and accurate device used in archaeological applications.
•The device broadly consists of a photon emitter containing a caesium light emitter or lamp, an absorption chamber containing caesium vapour and a "buffer gas" through which the emitted photons pass, and a photon detector, arranged in that order.
Magnetometers
•Raw data is plotted, then it is filtered and processed using software to try and iron out any irregularities (e.g. different grids)
An interpretation of the results is then drawn up.Ultimately this needs to be tested by excavation. Some people call this ground-truthing or calibration.
For images of geophysical plots see the www.m3motorway.ie website.
Palaeoecology
WHAT IS PALAEOECOLOGY?
Palaeoecology, strictly speaking, is the study of the nature and timing of environmental changes in the past, including climate change, assessing the impact of human activities on the natural environment and attempting to disentangle human impact from natural variability.
WHAT IS PALAEOECOLOGY?
Archaeological Science is a generic term used to describe various applications of scientific techniques to the study of the past.
This is an extremely broad field and incorporates:
Studies of ancient metals, e.g. how they were manufactured, sources of metal
The sources of various materials, such as stone, by analysing their petrologies
The identification of the organic fraction of any archaeological material (e.g. as tissue or fibres) and it’s subsequent analysis
The study of the chemical composition of materials for various purposes
ASPECTS OF PALAEOECOLOGY
Wood Studies, e.g. Dendrochronology, but also charcoal and fossil wood.
Palynology: Pollen, also Melissapalynology (study of pollen in honey)
Plant macrofossils: charred seeds and grains
Microfaunal studies
Coleoptera (Beetles), also other insects
Molluscs
EXAMPLE OF AN INTEGRATED PALAEOECOLOGICAL STUDY
Lisheen Mine Archaeological Project
Edited by M. Gowen, J. Ó Néill and M. Phillips
Published by Wordwell in 2005
Palynology
This is the study of fossil tree pollen preserved in buried soils and recovered from a context that can be dated or understood to have some significance.
Samples are collected by taking a continuous sample of material from a suitable environment such as deposits of peat or silts.
The sample is then divided up into small sections of even width (e.g. 1 cm) and this subsample is then processed to recover any surviving organic material.
The individual pollen grains are then counted and identified.
Palynology
Pollen grain (Lily)
Palynology
Pollen grain (Willow)
Palynology
Pollen grain (Pine)
Palynology
Dating Pollen Sequences
After counting and placing the pollen data into a chronological sequence, the main characteristics are studied so that general phases can be identified.
Some key events, such as the Elm Decline around 4300 BC are used as broad markers for events.
Once a phased sequence has been created, dates are obtained from suitable material.
On-line European Pollen Database
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/epd/epd_main.html
Drawback is that it is not completely up-to-date.
A Sequenced Pollen Diagram
A Sequenced Pollen Diagram
Dating Tree Pollen Summary Phases
Depth
A Sequenced Pollen Diagram: Phasing
Phasing is very straightforward
It is usually labelled separately for each sequence that has been studied
A Sequenced Pollen Diagram: Summary
Usually a summary is presented indicating the relative percentage of tree, shrub and herb pollen that is present.
This is important for understanding variations over time.
A Sequenced Pollen Diagram: Trees and Shrubs
Trees listed include:
Betula/Birch
Pinus/Pine
Ulmus/Elm
Quercus/Oak
Tilia/Lime
Alnus/Alder
Fagus/Beech
Fraxinus/Ash
Corylus/Hazel
Salix/Willow
Ilex/Holly
A Sequenced Pollen Diagram: Dates and Depth
The main unit of measurement for all pollen sequences is actually depth or location within the sample.
Subsequent study can identify tephra (glass particles) from dated volcanic eruptions that allow portions to be dated.
Organic material can be used to supply a sample for radiocarbon dating.
Elm Decline
This diagram shows species declining such as Elm (Ulmus) and Pine (Pine) and other such as grasses (Graminae) and heather (Calluna) exanding, c.4300 BC.
Pollen Diagram: Herbs and Mosses
In many cases the same broader patterns are visible across Ireland (here, Longford and Tipperary) suggesting the same basic vegetation history.
Often these relate to patterns of clearance (by humans) or regeneration (suggesting abandonment).
There is always some minor variation in this (compare the patterns above).
For long periods, though, the vegetation history is very similar – such as the regeneration in 600-200 BC, and, between AD 50 and 400 above.
Testate Amoebae
Help identify moisture levels.
Difference species indicate depth of water and hydrology.
This can tell us about relative amounts of rainfall and sunshine.
Note the scale:
1000 microns=1 mm
Testate Amoebae and Water-tables
These are the results of studies from Derryville Bog in County Tipperary. The line beside each column indicates the depth of the water-table below the surface of the bog (as indicated by the types of Testates present).
Water-table depth
Where the line is close to the column, the ground is wet.
Where it is not, the ground is dry.
At Derryville a period of low water table (i.e. dry bog surface) from AD 200 to 500 coincides with a gap in the dates for trackways suggesting the bog was dry enough to walk without needing to build trackways
Plant macrofossils
Plant remains often survive in waterlogged deposits.
This can include leaf and stem fragments as well as grains and seeds.
Charred seeds and grains also survive as they are robust after being carbonised.
Sometimes, though, only the impression survives, such as on a potsherd.
Burnt and unburnt wood can be studied
Studies of wood can show how wood was exploited in the past.
Comparison of different areas at Derryville showed human impact on woodlands.
Burnt and unburnt wood can be studied
This material (and the last slide) showed the composition of the woodlands to the east of Derryville and that they were being felled and used.
Burnt and unburnt wood can be studied
Wood from the west of Derryville bog was being used selectively.
Certain species were being managed to produce more wood.
Others may have been felled and cleared from the woodland and then disappear.
Woodland Management
Techniques like coppicing and pollarding are used to produce hazel and willow rods for wickerwork.
In this case, comparison of the age of the wood shows a preference for wood allowed to grow for around 6 years.
Managedwood
As shown here, regular sized wood can be used much better than unmanaged wood.
Hazel can be deliberately manipulated to produce rods of a certain size for making hurdles.
Sometimes snail and insect puppae can be used to show what the environment was like such as these examples that would indicate wet ground (stagnant water):Lymnaea truncatula(dwarf pond snail), on the right; andTrichoptera (caddis fly), on the left.
Coleoptera (Beetles)
Coleoptera (Beetles)
More regularly used are beetles (Coleoptera) as they are sensitive to the type of environment in which they live.
Basic technique is to recover samples either in sequence (as with pollen) or from specific contexts.
Sample is processed in a lab and the individual fragments are recovered and analysed.
Examples of what is found are shown on the next 4 slides.
Prostomis Mandibularis (shown here) is only known from archaeological sites. It inhabited natural, unmanaged woodlands, such as covered Ireland after the Ice Age.
Prostomis
As this map shows – not only was it extinct in Ireland, but also Britain.
These finds can be significant in showing how much the landscape has changed.
Palaeoecology, strictly speaking, is the study of the nature and timing of environmental changes in the past, including climate change, assessing the impact of human activities on the natural environment and attempting to disentangle human impact from natural variability.
WHAT IS PALAEOECOLOGY?
Archaeological Science is a generic term used to describe various applications of scientific techniques to the study of the past.
This is an extremely broad field and incorporates:
Studies of ancient metals, e.g. how they were manufactured, sources of metal
The sources of various materials, such as stone, by analysing their petrologies
The identification of the organic fraction of any archaeological material (e.g. as tissue or fibres) and it’s subsequent analysis
The study of the chemical composition of materials for various purposes
ASPECTS OF PALAEOECOLOGY
Wood Studies, e.g. Dendrochronology, but also charcoal and fossil wood.
Palynology: Pollen, also Melissapalynology (study of pollen in honey)
Plant macrofossils: charred seeds and grains
Microfaunal studies
Coleoptera (Beetles), also other insects
Molluscs
EXAMPLE OF AN INTEGRATED PALAEOECOLOGICAL STUDY
Lisheen Mine Archaeological Project
Edited by M. Gowen, J. Ó Néill and M. Phillips
Published by Wordwell in 2005
Palynology
This is the study of fossil tree pollen preserved in buried soils and recovered from a context that can be dated or understood to have some significance.
Samples are collected by taking a continuous sample of material from a suitable environment such as deposits of peat or silts.
The sample is then divided up into small sections of even width (e.g. 1 cm) and this subsample is then processed to recover any surviving organic material.
The individual pollen grains are then counted and identified.
Palynology
Pollen grain (Lily)
Palynology
Pollen grain (Willow)
Palynology
Pollen grain (Pine)
Palynology
Dating Pollen Sequences
After counting and placing the pollen data into a chronological sequence, the main characteristics are studied so that general phases can be identified.
Some key events, such as the Elm Decline around 4300 BC are used as broad markers for events.
Once a phased sequence has been created, dates are obtained from suitable material.
On-line European Pollen Database
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/epd/epd_main.html
Drawback is that it is not completely up-to-date.
A Sequenced Pollen Diagram
A Sequenced Pollen Diagram
Dating Tree Pollen Summary Phases
Depth
A Sequenced Pollen Diagram: Phasing
Phasing is very straightforward
It is usually labelled separately for each sequence that has been studied
A Sequenced Pollen Diagram: Summary
Usually a summary is presented indicating the relative percentage of tree, shrub and herb pollen that is present.
This is important for understanding variations over time.
A Sequenced Pollen Diagram: Trees and Shrubs
Trees listed include:
Betula/Birch
Pinus/Pine
Ulmus/Elm
Quercus/Oak
Tilia/Lime
Alnus/Alder
Fagus/Beech
Fraxinus/Ash
Corylus/Hazel
Salix/Willow
Ilex/Holly
A Sequenced Pollen Diagram: Dates and Depth
The main unit of measurement for all pollen sequences is actually depth or location within the sample.
Subsequent study can identify tephra (glass particles) from dated volcanic eruptions that allow portions to be dated.
Organic material can be used to supply a sample for radiocarbon dating.
Elm Decline
This diagram shows species declining such as Elm (Ulmus) and Pine (Pine) and other such as grasses (Graminae) and heather (Calluna) exanding, c.4300 BC.
Pollen Diagram: Herbs and Mosses
In many cases the same broader patterns are visible across Ireland (here, Longford and Tipperary) suggesting the same basic vegetation history.
Often these relate to patterns of clearance (by humans) or regeneration (suggesting abandonment).
There is always some minor variation in this (compare the patterns above).
For long periods, though, the vegetation history is very similar – such as the regeneration in 600-200 BC, and, between AD 50 and 400 above.
Testate Amoebae
Help identify moisture levels.
Difference species indicate depth of water and hydrology.
This can tell us about relative amounts of rainfall and sunshine.
Note the scale:
1000 microns=1 mm
Testate Amoebae and Water-tables
These are the results of studies from Derryville Bog in County Tipperary. The line beside each column indicates the depth of the water-table below the surface of the bog (as indicated by the types of Testates present).
Water-table depth
Where the line is close to the column, the ground is wet.
Where it is not, the ground is dry.
At Derryville a period of low water table (i.e. dry bog surface) from AD 200 to 500 coincides with a gap in the dates for trackways suggesting the bog was dry enough to walk without needing to build trackways
Plant macrofossils
Plant remains often survive in waterlogged deposits.
This can include leaf and stem fragments as well as grains and seeds.
Charred seeds and grains also survive as they are robust after being carbonised.
Sometimes, though, only the impression survives, such as on a potsherd.
Burnt and unburnt wood can be studied
Studies of wood can show how wood was exploited in the past.
Comparison of different areas at Derryville showed human impact on woodlands.
Burnt and unburnt wood can be studied
This material (and the last slide) showed the composition of the woodlands to the east of Derryville and that they were being felled and used.
Burnt and unburnt wood can be studied
Wood from the west of Derryville bog was being used selectively.
Certain species were being managed to produce more wood.
Others may have been felled and cleared from the woodland and then disappear.
Woodland Management
Techniques like coppicing and pollarding are used to produce hazel and willow rods for wickerwork.
In this case, comparison of the age of the wood shows a preference for wood allowed to grow for around 6 years.
Managedwood
As shown here, regular sized wood can be used much better than unmanaged wood.
Hazel can be deliberately manipulated to produce rods of a certain size for making hurdles.
Sometimes snail and insect puppae can be used to show what the environment was like such as these examples that would indicate wet ground (stagnant water):Lymnaea truncatula(dwarf pond snail), on the right; andTrichoptera (caddis fly), on the left.
Coleoptera (Beetles)
Coleoptera (Beetles)
More regularly used are beetles (Coleoptera) as they are sensitive to the type of environment in which they live.
Basic technique is to recover samples either in sequence (as with pollen) or from specific contexts.
Sample is processed in a lab and the individual fragments are recovered and analysed.
Examples of what is found are shown on the next 4 slides.
Prostomis Mandibularis (shown here) is only known from archaeological sites. It inhabited natural, unmanaged woodlands, such as covered Ireland after the Ice Age.
Prostomis
As this map shows – not only was it extinct in Ireland, but also Britain.
These finds can be significant in showing how much the landscape has changed.
Dendrochronology
Dendrochronology
Introduction
Tree rings can be used for reconstructing past climate because trees are good environmental indicators. They produce very small rings during years of drought and large rings during years of good growing conditions.
By counting the rings from the middle of the trunk, and studying the width of the rings, scientists can reconstruct an approximate calendar of wet and dry years. It is assumed that the weather affected ancient tree ring growth the same way it does today. It is also possible to date the occurrence and frequency of fires by finding scars that appear in the growth rings.
Characteristic Of Tree Components
Trees go through annual cycles of growth. Roots are busy in the early spring and late autumn. Leaves and twigs grow in spring and the tree adds wood all summer long.
A years growth on a tree ring.
Cross-section of trunk showing: bark; cork cambium; cambium; phloem; xylem and pith.
Schematic cross-section showing features
Why do ring widths vary?
Variability of tree ring width and climatic conditions relates to two sets of seasonal patterns:
Early wood grows as large, thick-walled cells
Late wood grows as small, densely-packed, thin-walled cells
Early wood + late wood = an annual growth ring
The average (mean) width of both parts of the tree ring is dependant on:
tree species
tree age
availability of stored food
climate (precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, windspeed and humidity).
Two kind of tree sampling for dendrochronology measurement
TREE SLICE SAMPLING
Collection of the tree slice
Tree slice surface preparation by polishing
Choice of the suitable part of tree slice for dendrochronology measurements.
TREE CORE SAMPLING
Uses an Increment borer
Generally confined to standing trees or structural timbers
TREE SLICE SAMPLING
TREE CORE SAMPLING
TREE RINGS MEASUREMENT
Each tree should be measured at least in two radiuses.
The final results is mean from each radius of adequate tree ring measurement
TREE RINGS MEASUREMENT
TREE RINGS MEASUREMENT
Building a Chronology
For any investigations of climate condition changes in the past, or other applications, a master chronology must be prepared.
This allows us to match the measurement of tree rings width to fixed calendar years.
Building a Chronology
Applications of Dendrochronology
Dendrochronological data is used in various types of research:
Dating
Climate
Studying climatic highs and lows (so-called catastrophes)
Recently, dendrochronological data has been used to establish the provenance of oaks by comparing the growth patterns from different areas and establishing where the oak originally grew.
Calibration of Radiocarbon Curve
This was done by dating samples of known calendar age and plotting the results.
Dating
Corlea,Co. Longford
Dated to 148 BC
Dating
Navan Fort, Co. Armagh
Dated to 95 BC
NavanFort
Prior to excavation its date was uncertain, but now it is known that the main mound and enclosure date to 95 BC.
Navan Fort
The date came from the base of a large oak post in the centre of the main site.
DanishOak Coffin Graves
Burials below mounds include well preserved organic materials including coffins.
This has allowed for a detailed chronology to be built for the relevant period.
Danish Oak Graves (1450-1250 BC)
Map showing the location of dendro-datedgraves in Denmark (note wide distribution)
Provenancing
The Vjeby ship (shown here) was found off the coast of North Zealand, Denmark, in 1976 and has been dated by dendrochronology to 1372.
The source of the oaks timbers could be narrowed to the region around Danzig/Gdansk. Data from other boats has suggested a strong ship building industry in this area.
Provenancing
Viking boats from Roskilde fjord can be shown to have been built with Irish timber.
This was the basis for the Sea Stallion project last summer (still on display in Collins Barracks).
Climate Studies Using Dendrochronology
Accurate written records for temperature only go back for 150 years or so?
How do we understand long term climate change?
Climate Studies Using Dendrochronology
We can combine our other data to produce longer sequences, such as tree ring data, ice cores and some historical records
1628/9 BC
This is the growth pattern from a number of trees from a County Antrim Bog.
The areas in black is the narrowest growth rings – all in the 1620s BC.
Was this a period of intense cold??
1159 BC
Many Irish bog oaks have a sequence of around 18 narrow rings between 1159 BC and 1141 BC (red arrows).
Does this equate to a period of intense cold??
How would this affect contemporary society?
10th Century BC Narrow Ring Event (948 BC)
In some cases sites can be shown to be built to coincide with poor tree growth.
This shows bog oak growth relative to dated sites (1100-800 BC).
Catastrophes?
Some people maintain that these environmental events coincide with significant cultural and historical events.
Main work is by Prof. Mike Baillie:
Exodus to Arthur
A Slice in Time.
Introduction
Tree rings can be used for reconstructing past climate because trees are good environmental indicators. They produce very small rings during years of drought and large rings during years of good growing conditions.
By counting the rings from the middle of the trunk, and studying the width of the rings, scientists can reconstruct an approximate calendar of wet and dry years. It is assumed that the weather affected ancient tree ring growth the same way it does today. It is also possible to date the occurrence and frequency of fires by finding scars that appear in the growth rings.
Characteristic Of Tree Components
Trees go through annual cycles of growth. Roots are busy in the early spring and late autumn. Leaves and twigs grow in spring and the tree adds wood all summer long.
A years growth on a tree ring.
Cross-section of trunk showing: bark; cork cambium; cambium; phloem; xylem and pith.
Schematic cross-section showing features
Why do ring widths vary?
Variability of tree ring width and climatic conditions relates to two sets of seasonal patterns:
Early wood grows as large, thick-walled cells
Late wood grows as small, densely-packed, thin-walled cells
Early wood + late wood = an annual growth ring
The average (mean) width of both parts of the tree ring is dependant on:
tree species
tree age
availability of stored food
climate (precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, windspeed and humidity).
Two kind of tree sampling for dendrochronology measurement
TREE SLICE SAMPLING
Collection of the tree slice
Tree slice surface preparation by polishing
Choice of the suitable part of tree slice for dendrochronology measurements.
TREE CORE SAMPLING
Uses an Increment borer
Generally confined to standing trees or structural timbers
TREE SLICE SAMPLING
TREE CORE SAMPLING
TREE RINGS MEASUREMENT
Each tree should be measured at least in two radiuses.
The final results is mean from each radius of adequate tree ring measurement
TREE RINGS MEASUREMENT
TREE RINGS MEASUREMENT
Building a Chronology
For any investigations of climate condition changes in the past, or other applications, a master chronology must be prepared.
This allows us to match the measurement of tree rings width to fixed calendar years.
Building a Chronology
Applications of Dendrochronology
Dendrochronological data is used in various types of research:
Dating
Climate
Studying climatic highs and lows (so-called catastrophes)
Recently, dendrochronological data has been used to establish the provenance of oaks by comparing the growth patterns from different areas and establishing where the oak originally grew.
Calibration of Radiocarbon Curve
This was done by dating samples of known calendar age and plotting the results.
Dating
Corlea,Co. Longford
Dated to 148 BC
Dating
Navan Fort, Co. Armagh
Dated to 95 BC
NavanFort
Prior to excavation its date was uncertain, but now it is known that the main mound and enclosure date to 95 BC.
Navan Fort
The date came from the base of a large oak post in the centre of the main site.
DanishOak Coffin Graves
Burials below mounds include well preserved organic materials including coffins.
This has allowed for a detailed chronology to be built for the relevant period.
Danish Oak Graves (1450-1250 BC)
Map showing the location of dendro-datedgraves in Denmark (note wide distribution)
Provenancing
The Vjeby ship (shown here) was found off the coast of North Zealand, Denmark, in 1976 and has been dated by dendrochronology to 1372.
The source of the oaks timbers could be narrowed to the region around Danzig/Gdansk. Data from other boats has suggested a strong ship building industry in this area.
Provenancing
Viking boats from Roskilde fjord can be shown to have been built with Irish timber.
This was the basis for the Sea Stallion project last summer (still on display in Collins Barracks).
Climate Studies Using Dendrochronology
Accurate written records for temperature only go back for 150 years or so?
How do we understand long term climate change?
Climate Studies Using Dendrochronology
We can combine our other data to produce longer sequences, such as tree ring data, ice cores and some historical records
1628/9 BC
This is the growth pattern from a number of trees from a County Antrim Bog.
The areas in black is the narrowest growth rings – all in the 1620s BC.
Was this a period of intense cold??
1159 BC
Many Irish bog oaks have a sequence of around 18 narrow rings between 1159 BC and 1141 BC (red arrows).
Does this equate to a period of intense cold??
How would this affect contemporary society?
10th Century BC Narrow Ring Event (948 BC)
In some cases sites can be shown to be built to coincide with poor tree growth.
This shows bog oak growth relative to dated sites (1100-800 BC).
Catastrophes?
Some people maintain that these environmental events coincide with significant cultural and historical events.
Main work is by Prof. Mike Baillie:
Exodus to Arthur
A Slice in Time.
Radiocarbon and other dating methods
Radiocarbon Dating
Archaeology
DATING METHODS
Archaeologists use a variety of dating methods:
•RADIOCARBON DATING
•DENDROCHRONOLOGY (more next week)
•POTASSIUM ARGON DATING
•LUMINESCENCE DATING
•OBSIDIAN HYDRATIAN DATING
•ARCHEOMAGNETIC DATING
RADIOCARBON DATING
Carbon has two stable, nonradioactive isotopes: carbon-12 (12C), and carbon-13 (13C).
In addition, there are trace amounts of the unstable isotope carbon-14(14C) on Earth.
Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 years and would have long ago vanished from Earth were it not for the unremitting cosmic ray impacts on nitrogen in the Earth's atmosphere, which create more of the isotope.
DENDROCHRONOLOGY
POTASSIUM ARGON DATING
Thermoluminescence
OBSIDIAN HYDRATIAN DATING
The obsidian hydration dating method was introduced to the archaeological community in 1960 by Irving Friedman and Robert Smith of the U. S. Geological Survey (Friedman and Smith 1960). The potential of the method in archaeological chronologic studies was quickly recognized and research concerning the effect of different variables on the rate of hydration has continued to the present day by Friedman and others.
Archaeomagnetic dating
•The position of magnetic North wanders around the North Pole, and even reverses completely to the South Pole for extended periods on a geological time-scale.
•From any reference point its position is measurable in terms of two components: movement up or down (inclination or 'dip') and from side to side (declination).
•The earth's magnetic field is indeed dynamic and does shift. At present the declination for London changes by approximately 1 degree every decade.
How does it work?
•Magnetic information is recorded in iron elements in baked clay which have kept their position on cooling from the last firing of the clay.
•This means that baked clay, used for thousands of years in the construction of hearths, ovens and kilns, contains a weak but permanent magnetization which can be measured to determine the magnetic intensity and declination at the time of its last cooling.
•Before clay is baked these properties are orientated in random directions. If the temperature is raised to over several hundred degrees Celsius, the thermal agitation of the crystals allows some of the domains to be aligned by the earth's magnetic field.
•When the clay cools their directions remain fixed, and there is a weak permanent magnetization in the same direction as the earth's field.
Archaeomagnetic Example
Radiocarbon dating
•Radiocarbon dating is a method that uses the naturally occurring isotope carbon-14 (14C) to determine the age of carbonaceous (contains carbon) materials up to about 60,000 years.
•Benefits are that it provides an independent method of dating any organic material.
•Pitfalls are that it needs to be used properly.
N-14 is bombarded by cosmic radiation and loses a proton and C-14 is formed in the atmosphere
C-14 combines with oxygen in the atmosphere to form CO2
CO2 is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis, plants are eaten by herbivores
Herbivores are eaten by carnivores, etc. etc.
Herb/Carnivores store carbon for energy
One the carbon-absorbing organism has died, those parts that remain can be “radiocarbon-dated”.
What is measured?
•Radiocarbon dating measures the rate of decay in 14C after the organism stopped absorbing atmospheric carbon.
•The amount of 14C is measured relative to 12C.
Conception
•Radiocarbon dating was begun by Willard Libby
•In 1946, he suggested that 14C exists in living matter
•Confirmed a year later
•1949 found that several trees contained roughly the same amount of activity due to 14C
•1960 won Nobel prize
Assumptions
•14C production is constant
•The biosphere and atmosphere have roughly the same 14C concentration
•After death there is no 14C exchange and it is only affected by radioactive decay, except where particular factors are involved such as
–Glacial effects
–Human activity
–Variations in natural production rate
C-14 decreases over the years
Glacial effects
CO2 solubility is temperature dependant
Human activity
Fossil fuel (Suess) effect and bomb effect
Variations in production rate
Major cause of Suess wiggles
Pitfalls
•The cumulative effect of the pitfalls were to demonstrate that the radiocarbon decay was variable.
•Thus dates could be expressed as years before present, often written as ‘BP’, so measurement of the decay in the sample might produce a result of 2500 years BP.
•As there is a potential error margin, this is usually added to the date range.
•Thus dates would be written as 2500 BP +/- 50.
Pitfalls
•But how do years BP equate to dates like 500 BC or AD 785?
•The only way of checking this was to produce control samples from a tree-ring chronology from which samples of known date could be extracted, by counting back to tree rings that grew in 500 BC and AD 785.
•From this use of the tree-ring chronologies it was possible to relate radiocarbon decay to actual calendar dates.
•It is possible to use a graph or a computer programme to translate a ‘BP’ date to a real calendar date.
Sample Preparation
•Unearth sample
•Physical separation
•Treat with acid
•Convert carbon to CO2 via combustion
•Remove impurities (ie nitrogen oxides, sulfur, products of incomplete combustion, and radon)
•Isolate carbon: 2 Mg + CO2 à MgO + C
•Limit exposure to air
•Accelerator Mass Spectrometer
Accelerator Mass Spectrometry
What C-14 and AMS date
Archaeology
DATING METHODS
Archaeologists use a variety of dating methods:
•RADIOCARBON DATING
•DENDROCHRONOLOGY (more next week)
•POTASSIUM ARGON DATING
•LUMINESCENCE DATING
•OBSIDIAN HYDRATIAN DATING
•ARCHEOMAGNETIC DATING
RADIOCARBON DATING
Carbon has two stable, nonradioactive isotopes: carbon-12 (12C), and carbon-13 (13C).
In addition, there are trace amounts of the unstable isotope carbon-14(14C) on Earth.
Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 years and would have long ago vanished from Earth were it not for the unremitting cosmic ray impacts on nitrogen in the Earth's atmosphere, which create more of the isotope.
DENDROCHRONOLOGY
POTASSIUM ARGON DATING
Thermoluminescence
OBSIDIAN HYDRATIAN DATING
The obsidian hydration dating method was introduced to the archaeological community in 1960 by Irving Friedman and Robert Smith of the U. S. Geological Survey (Friedman and Smith 1960). The potential of the method in archaeological chronologic studies was quickly recognized and research concerning the effect of different variables on the rate of hydration has continued to the present day by Friedman and others.
Archaeomagnetic dating
•The position of magnetic North wanders around the North Pole, and even reverses completely to the South Pole for extended periods on a geological time-scale.
•From any reference point its position is measurable in terms of two components: movement up or down (inclination or 'dip') and from side to side (declination).
•The earth's magnetic field is indeed dynamic and does shift. At present the declination for London changes by approximately 1 degree every decade.
How does it work?
•Magnetic information is recorded in iron elements in baked clay which have kept their position on cooling from the last firing of the clay.
•This means that baked clay, used for thousands of years in the construction of hearths, ovens and kilns, contains a weak but permanent magnetization which can be measured to determine the magnetic intensity and declination at the time of its last cooling.
•Before clay is baked these properties are orientated in random directions. If the temperature is raised to over several hundred degrees Celsius, the thermal agitation of the crystals allows some of the domains to be aligned by the earth's magnetic field.
•When the clay cools their directions remain fixed, and there is a weak permanent magnetization in the same direction as the earth's field.
Archaeomagnetic Example
Radiocarbon dating
•Radiocarbon dating is a method that uses the naturally occurring isotope carbon-14 (14C) to determine the age of carbonaceous (contains carbon) materials up to about 60,000 years.
•Benefits are that it provides an independent method of dating any organic material.
•Pitfalls are that it needs to be used properly.
N-14 is bombarded by cosmic radiation and loses a proton and C-14 is formed in the atmosphere
C-14 combines with oxygen in the atmosphere to form CO2
CO2 is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis, plants are eaten by herbivores
Herbivores are eaten by carnivores, etc. etc.
Herb/Carnivores store carbon for energy
One the carbon-absorbing organism has died, those parts that remain can be “radiocarbon-dated”.
What is measured?
•Radiocarbon dating measures the rate of decay in 14C after the organism stopped absorbing atmospheric carbon.
•The amount of 14C is measured relative to 12C.
Conception
•Radiocarbon dating was begun by Willard Libby
•In 1946, he suggested that 14C exists in living matter
•Confirmed a year later
•1949 found that several trees contained roughly the same amount of activity due to 14C
•1960 won Nobel prize
Assumptions
•14C production is constant
•The biosphere and atmosphere have roughly the same 14C concentration
•After death there is no 14C exchange and it is only affected by radioactive decay, except where particular factors are involved such as
–Glacial effects
–Human activity
–Variations in natural production rate
C-14 decreases over the years
Glacial effects
CO2 solubility is temperature dependant
Human activity
Fossil fuel (Suess) effect and bomb effect
Variations in production rate
Major cause of Suess wiggles
Pitfalls
•The cumulative effect of the pitfalls were to demonstrate that the radiocarbon decay was variable.
•Thus dates could be expressed as years before present, often written as ‘BP’, so measurement of the decay in the sample might produce a result of 2500 years BP.
•As there is a potential error margin, this is usually added to the date range.
•Thus dates would be written as 2500 BP +/- 50.
Pitfalls
•But how do years BP equate to dates like 500 BC or AD 785?
•The only way of checking this was to produce control samples from a tree-ring chronology from which samples of known date could be extracted, by counting back to tree rings that grew in 500 BC and AD 785.
•From this use of the tree-ring chronologies it was possible to relate radiocarbon decay to actual calendar dates.
•It is possible to use a graph or a computer programme to translate a ‘BP’ date to a real calendar date.
Sample Preparation
•Unearth sample
•Physical separation
•Treat with acid
•Convert carbon to CO2 via combustion
•Remove impurities (ie nitrogen oxides, sulfur, products of incomplete combustion, and radon)
•Isolate carbon: 2 Mg + CO2 à MgO + C
•Limit exposure to air
•Accelerator Mass Spectrometer
Accelerator Mass Spectrometry
What C-14 and AMS date
Archaeological Excavation in Ireland
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION
WHY? WHERE? WHO? HOW?
WHY? AND WHERE?
RESEARCH – To address a particular question about the past. Small number of research digs every year (less than 20).
RESCUE – As part of development control. The majority of the 2000 or so excavations in Ireland arise due to issues raised during the planning process.
RESEARCH EXCAVATION Rath na Riogh, Tara
Rath of the Synods
Mound of the Hostages
An Forradh
Teach Chormaic
Project funded by government.
Carried out by The Discovery Programme.
Focused on archaeological issues.
RESULTS PUBLISHED AS:
Roche, H. 2002, ‘Excavations at Ráith na Ríg, Tara, Co. Meath, 1997’, Discovery Programme Reports 6, 19–82. Dublin, Royal Irish Academy/Discovery Programme.
RESCUE EXCAVATION
-ARISES FROM PLANNING PROCESS
-National Monuments Section identify a threat to an archaeological site and suggest:
-suitable mitigation (if required)
-permission is refused
-further information is required
TYPICAL PLANNING CONDITION
The developer shall facilitate the planning authority in preserving, recording or otherwise protecting archaeological materials or features that may exist within the site. In this regard, the developer shall -
- notify the planning authority in writing at least four weeks prior to the commencement of any site operation (including hydrological and geotechnical investigations) relating to the proposed development,
- employ a suitably-qualified archaeologist who shall monitor all site investigations and other excavation works, and
- provide satisfactory arrangements for the recording and removal of any archaeological material which may be considered appropriate to remove.
Reason: In order to conserve the archaeological heritage of the site and to secure the preservation of any remains which may exist within the site.
The National Monuments Section (NMS) is responsible for:The identification and designation of sites through the Archaeological Survey of Ireland, which is an integral part of the NMS. Assisting OPW in the archaeological care of state properties; Implementation of protective and regulatory controls (incl.Licensing of excavations) under the National Monuments Acts; The provision of input and advice to planning and other authorities in respect of individual planning and other development applications, projects and plans.
Legislation
•National Monuments Acts 1930 - 2004:
•National Monuments Act 1930:
•National Monuments (Amendment) Act 1954:
•National Monuments Amendment Act 1987:
•National Monuments Amendment Act 1994:
•National Monuments (Amendment) Act 2004: (No 22 of 2004)
Framework on which planning decisions are based are the mapped records held by the state.1st EditionOrdnanceSurveyMap
Data Resources
(Maintained by National Monuments, Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government)
Record of Monuments and Places (RMP)
Sites and Monuments Record (SMR)
Register of Historic Monuments
Maritime Sites and Monuments Record
Urban Archaeological Surveys
National Inventory of Architectural Heritage (NIAH)
Published County Archaeological Inventories and Surveys
Office of Public Works river drainage files
The Register of Sites and Places / Sites and Monuments Record: This comprising some one hundred and twenty thousand protected archaeological sites throughout Ireland. Many important or threatened archaeological site which are not in the ownership of the state, are specifically protected under legislation from being damaged or interfered with by the legal owners of the land.
The National Monuments Service is the licencing authority for all archaeological excavation, which can only be carried out by qualified and registered archaeologists. The register of excavations maintains details of all excavations carried out in Ireland together with a large archive of excavation reports. Excavations at the moment, exceed 1000 per annum.
Licence applications must also be sent to the National Museum of Ireland.
Hill of TaraNGR:29201/259793RMP No: ME 031-033-16 SMR No: ME 31/33
Hill of TaraSMR No: ME 31/33NGR:29201/259793RMP No: ME 031-033-16
WHO?
•Most archaeological excavations are carried out by private companies.
–Companies first appeared in the late 1980s.
–Now there are around 20 medium to large consultancies in the Republic of Ireland.
–Some have multi-million Euro turnovers.
–Numbers are usually uncertain, but there are probably around 1200-1500 employed on archaeological excavations are related work.
•4. Location of site
•(a) Townland or City Ward
•(b) Parish (c) County
•(d) 6 map (e) 25 map (f ) 6 Co-ords E (g) 6 Co-ords N (h) 1:1000
•(i) National Grid Co-ordinates (j) SMR number
•Attach Method Statement?Research design including a photocopy of relelvant portion of 6Ó, 25Ó or 1:1000 Ordnance Survey map with
•location of site and area to be excavated clearly marked. If a maritime wreck site, give latitude and longitude, admiralty chart number and photocopy of same with site marked.
•N.B. Failure to include a Method Statement/Research Design including a properly marked map will delay processing of your applicant or result in refusal of licence.
•5. Excavation Details
•(a) Type of site (if known)
•(b) Has site been inspected by applicant with a view to excavation Yes/No
•6. Period of time
•(a) length for which licence is sought?
•(b) when excavation is expected to take place?
•7. Purpose of excavation?
•8. Number of expected further seasons on site
•9. Owner of site
•Address of owner
•10. Excavation funding
•(a) Are adequate funds available for this excavation?
•(b) Source of funding
•(c) Are adequate funds available for post excavation work?
•10. Excavation funding
•(a) Are adequate funds available for this excavation?
•(b) Source of funding
•(c) Are adequate funds available for post excavation work?
•11. Planning Details (to be filled out only if excavation is connected with a development)
•(a) Is this application connected with a Planning Application/EIS/Other (specify)
•(b) Planning Authority (c) Planning Register Number
•(d) Are you aware of the planning conditions relating to this site (enclose a copy of the relevant conditions)
•(e) Does your excavation strategy take these conditions into account
•12. Finds
•(a) Where will finds be housed during post-excavation work?
•(b) Where will finds be housed ultimately?
•(c) What facilities are available to you for finds conservation?
•13. Publication Record (Archaelogical excavations directed or co-directed by applicant within or outside the state)
•(a) Excavations with definitive reports published
•(b) All unpublished excavations for which detailed reports have been lodged with the National Monuments Service.
Notes attached to the licence:
•3 (a). Under the provisions of the National Monuments Acts all archaeological objects are the property of the State. The National Museum of Ireland is the States repository for archaeological objects. The licensee is not at liberty to enter into private arrangements regarding the disposition of material. The National Museum shall be consulted by the licensee regarding the temporary storage of excavated finds.
Notes attached to the licence:
•b). The licensee is reminded that it is illegal to export archaeological objects, even on a temporary basis, without a licence from the National Museum of Ireland. It is also illegal to alter, conserve or destructively sample artefacts without a licence from the National Museum. Apllication for these licences should be made to the Director of the National Museum.
Notes attached to the licence:
•6. The licensee shall lodge a preliminary report on the ecavation with the National Monuments Service and the National Museum within four weeks of the competion of each season of excavation. S/he shall lodge a detailed report on the excavation within twelve months of the completion of the excavation with the National Monuments Service and the National Museum. This report should be to publication standard and should include a full account, suitably illustrated, of the stratigraphy, features and finds along with a discussion and specialist reports. It is expected that the excavator will make every effort to have the report published thereafter and a copy of the published report should be lodged with the National Monuments Service.
Records are kept for all activities on an excavation
Everything is labeled and the locations recorded in drawn plans and written records
Basic plans are drawn and then annotated
Heights are taken
Finds and samples are meticulously bagged and recorded
Detailed records are prepared describing the relationship between different layers and features
PUBLICATION
•Excavations tend to be published in various ways:
–Archaeology Journals (National and Local)
–As a book in their own right
–As part of a collection of Archaeology Papers
–On the Internet
–NOT AT ALL (This is too common).
WHY? WHERE? WHO? HOW?
WHY? AND WHERE?
RESEARCH – To address a particular question about the past. Small number of research digs every year (less than 20).
RESCUE – As part of development control. The majority of the 2000 or so excavations in Ireland arise due to issues raised during the planning process.
RESEARCH EXCAVATION Rath na Riogh, Tara
Rath of the Synods
Mound of the Hostages
An Forradh
Teach Chormaic
Project funded by government.
Carried out by The Discovery Programme.
Focused on archaeological issues.
RESULTS PUBLISHED AS:
Roche, H. 2002, ‘Excavations at Ráith na Ríg, Tara, Co. Meath, 1997’, Discovery Programme Reports 6, 19–82. Dublin, Royal Irish Academy/Discovery Programme.
RESCUE EXCAVATION
-ARISES FROM PLANNING PROCESS
-National Monuments Section identify a threat to an archaeological site and suggest:
-suitable mitigation (if required)
-permission is refused
-further information is required
TYPICAL PLANNING CONDITION
The developer shall facilitate the planning authority in preserving, recording or otherwise protecting archaeological materials or features that may exist within the site. In this regard, the developer shall -
- notify the planning authority in writing at least four weeks prior to the commencement of any site operation (including hydrological and geotechnical investigations) relating to the proposed development,
- employ a suitably-qualified archaeologist who shall monitor all site investigations and other excavation works, and
- provide satisfactory arrangements for the recording and removal of any archaeological material which may be considered appropriate to remove.
Reason: In order to conserve the archaeological heritage of the site and to secure the preservation of any remains which may exist within the site.
The National Monuments Section (NMS) is responsible for:The identification and designation of sites through the Archaeological Survey of Ireland, which is an integral part of the NMS. Assisting OPW in the archaeological care of state properties; Implementation of protective and regulatory controls (incl.Licensing of excavations) under the National Monuments Acts; The provision of input and advice to planning and other authorities in respect of individual planning and other development applications, projects and plans.
Legislation
•National Monuments Acts 1930 - 2004:
•National Monuments Act 1930:
•National Monuments (Amendment) Act 1954:
•National Monuments Amendment Act 1987:
•National Monuments Amendment Act 1994:
•National Monuments (Amendment) Act 2004: (No 22 of 2004)
Framework on which planning decisions are based are the mapped records held by the state.1st EditionOrdnanceSurveyMap
Data Resources
(Maintained by National Monuments, Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government)
Record of Monuments and Places (RMP)
Sites and Monuments Record (SMR)
Register of Historic Monuments
Maritime Sites and Monuments Record
Urban Archaeological Surveys
National Inventory of Architectural Heritage (NIAH)
Published County Archaeological Inventories and Surveys
Office of Public Works river drainage files
The Register of Sites and Places / Sites and Monuments Record: This comprising some one hundred and twenty thousand protected archaeological sites throughout Ireland. Many important or threatened archaeological site which are not in the ownership of the state, are specifically protected under legislation from being damaged or interfered with by the legal owners of the land.
The National Monuments Service is the licencing authority for all archaeological excavation, which can only be carried out by qualified and registered archaeologists. The register of excavations maintains details of all excavations carried out in Ireland together with a large archive of excavation reports. Excavations at the moment, exceed 1000 per annum.
Licence applications must also be sent to the National Museum of Ireland.
Hill of TaraNGR:29201/259793RMP No: ME 031-033-16 SMR No: ME 31/33
Hill of TaraSMR No: ME 31/33NGR:29201/259793RMP No: ME 031-033-16
WHO?
•Most archaeological excavations are carried out by private companies.
–Companies first appeared in the late 1980s.
–Now there are around 20 medium to large consultancies in the Republic of Ireland.
–Some have multi-million Euro turnovers.
–Numbers are usually uncertain, but there are probably around 1200-1500 employed on archaeological excavations are related work.
•4. Location of site
•(a) Townland or City Ward
•(b) Parish (c) County
•(d) 6 map (e) 25 map (f ) 6 Co-ords E (g) 6 Co-ords N (h) 1:1000
•(i) National Grid Co-ordinates (j) SMR number
•Attach Method Statement?Research design including a photocopy of relelvant portion of 6Ó, 25Ó or 1:1000 Ordnance Survey map with
•location of site and area to be excavated clearly marked. If a maritime wreck site, give latitude and longitude, admiralty chart number and photocopy of same with site marked.
•N.B. Failure to include a Method Statement/Research Design including a properly marked map will delay processing of your applicant or result in refusal of licence.
•5. Excavation Details
•(a) Type of site (if known)
•(b) Has site been inspected by applicant with a view to excavation Yes/No
•6. Period of time
•(a) length for which licence is sought?
•(b) when excavation is expected to take place?
•7. Purpose of excavation?
•8. Number of expected further seasons on site
•9. Owner of site
•Address of owner
•10. Excavation funding
•(a) Are adequate funds available for this excavation?
•(b) Source of funding
•(c) Are adequate funds available for post excavation work?
•10. Excavation funding
•(a) Are adequate funds available for this excavation?
•(b) Source of funding
•(c) Are adequate funds available for post excavation work?
•11. Planning Details (to be filled out only if excavation is connected with a development)
•(a) Is this application connected with a Planning Application/EIS/Other (specify)
•(b) Planning Authority (c) Planning Register Number
•(d) Are you aware of the planning conditions relating to this site (enclose a copy of the relevant conditions)
•(e) Does your excavation strategy take these conditions into account
•12. Finds
•(a) Where will finds be housed during post-excavation work?
•(b) Where will finds be housed ultimately?
•(c) What facilities are available to you for finds conservation?
•13. Publication Record (Archaelogical excavations directed or co-directed by applicant within or outside the state)
•(a) Excavations with definitive reports published
•(b) All unpublished excavations for which detailed reports have been lodged with the National Monuments Service.
Notes attached to the licence:
•3 (a). Under the provisions of the National Monuments Acts all archaeological objects are the property of the State. The National Museum of Ireland is the States repository for archaeological objects. The licensee is not at liberty to enter into private arrangements regarding the disposition of material. The National Museum shall be consulted by the licensee regarding the temporary storage of excavated finds.
Notes attached to the licence:
•b). The licensee is reminded that it is illegal to export archaeological objects, even on a temporary basis, without a licence from the National Museum of Ireland. It is also illegal to alter, conserve or destructively sample artefacts without a licence from the National Museum. Apllication for these licences should be made to the Director of the National Museum.
Notes attached to the licence:
•6. The licensee shall lodge a preliminary report on the ecavation with the National Monuments Service and the National Museum within four weeks of the competion of each season of excavation. S/he shall lodge a detailed report on the excavation within twelve months of the completion of the excavation with the National Monuments Service and the National Museum. This report should be to publication standard and should include a full account, suitably illustrated, of the stratigraphy, features and finds along with a discussion and specialist reports. It is expected that the excavator will make every effort to have the report published thereafter and a copy of the published report should be lodged with the National Monuments Service.
Records are kept for all activities on an excavation
Everything is labeled and the locations recorded in drawn plans and written records
Basic plans are drawn and then annotated
Heights are taken
Finds and samples are meticulously bagged and recorded
Detailed records are prepared describing the relationship between different layers and features
PUBLICATION
•Excavations tend to be published in various ways:
–Archaeology Journals (National and Local)
–As a book in their own right
–As part of a collection of Archaeology Papers
–On the Internet
–NOT AT ALL (This is too common).
History of Archaeology
History of Archaeology?
From Greek“a dialogue about the past”Archaeologists study the human pastDo not dig dinosaurs, that is PaleontologyThrough the identification and analysis of past human activityArchitectural remainsRefuse/rubbish, depositsBurials and cemeteriesOthers?History of ArchaeologyExploratory Periodca. 500 BC – 1900Includes Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and the Industrial AgeWhat is out there?Gradual accumulation of knowledge about the diversity of the pastDevelopment of methods of inquiryClassificatory Period1900 – 1950Arranging data in time and spaceCulture HistoryExplanatory Period1950 – presentHow and why do cultural systems changeProcessual and Post-processual archaeologyThe Beginnings of the Exploration of the PastThe earliest human civilizations recognized the traces of their ancestorsSources of mythic pasts and folk beliefsTuath de DanaanThunderstones and Elven-BoltsGiants and TrollsDanes Graves, Danes FortsThe past was often used to reaffirm and reinforce the political power of the rulers NabonidusKing of Babylon from 556 to 539 BCExcavated in temples of Ur to demonstrate his descent from earlier KingsFirst written (in cuneiform) records of investigative excavationNabonidusHis excavations discovered the Shrine to Ishtar, which was expanded upon for his useThe work “made the King’s heart glad and caused his countenance to brighten”However, the Persians conquered Babylon soon afterwardsPope St. Damasus IAD 304-384Known for his preservation and restoration of early Christian sites in RomePatron saint of archaeologistsMedieval BeliefsTapestry detail showing the believed construction of StonehengeSometimes attributed to be MerlinNote large size of the builder, could it be a giant? Medieval BeliefsDetails from an illuminated manuscript of a moral story about buried treasures and the evils of ill-gained wealthPlaced by the devil to temptMedieval Beliefs“Magic Crocks”Spontaneously created in the earthExposed by the activities of burrowing animalsMedieval Beliefs Meet Early SciencePolish King Wladyslaw II ordered excavations to understand this phenomena in 1416Determined to be cremation urns of “pagans” that were exposed by erosionLate Bronze Age (1200-700 BC) cemetery Renaissance and Enlightenment
Rediscovery of Classical Greece and RomeInspiration to art, literature, science
Rise of Antiquarianism
Collecting and displaying objects of antiquity
Leisure pursuit of the upper class
Artifacts were trappings of wealth and an educated mind
Foundations of museums, but items often lacking provenience, loss of contextual information
Beginnings of scientific inquiry
Empirical data collected to answer problemsCiriaco de Pizzicolli
Italian antiquarian (1391-1455)Believed that data from ancient monuments could supplement historic textsRecorded ancient monuments in Italy, Greece, Turkey, and Egypt
Said that his work was “restoring the dead to life”
Much of his work was lost in a library fire, but it was widely referenced by other researchers prior to its destructionSketch of the Parthenon in Athens Michel Mercati (1541-1593) was the superintendent of the Vatican Botanical Gardens
Collection of “ceraunia”Thunderstones and Elven-bolts of folk belief
Determined that they were stone tools made by humans before metals were inventedOne of the earliest illustrations of archaeological artifacts
Antiquarianism
Ole Worm’s Cabinet of Curiosities, Denmark 1655
A typical amalgamation of unusual objects of natural and cultural history assembled in a decontextualized manner that does not seek to explain the meaning of the items
Antiquarianism
Archaeology and Western Imperialism during the Exploratory Period
Find art and artifacts to bring back to the mother countryLooting the cultural heritage of others to glorify imperial conquests
Implicit superiority of the conquerors over the conquered, those who have fallen from earlier glory that now must be rescued and preserved
For Europeans it was often the case that: Living white archaeologists studied dead people of colour
In American archaeology:American archaeology is largely the study of the American Indian
The study of the “other”
Enlightenment
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)Mounds in the US Southeast and Midwest were often attributed to a mythical race of Moundbuilders
Excavated a prehistoric burial mound on his estate in Virginia
Determined that the evidence suggested that it was constructed by ancestors of the region’s Native American cultures, debunking racist myths
1850 painting of the excavation of a mound in Louisiana showing stratified depositsAdvances in Methods
Understanding of the value of information beyond just the aesthetic quality of the artifacts
Provenance – where an artifact was recovered
Context – what type of deposits were the artifact recovered from
Association – what other materials were found with the artifact
Greater attention to notes and other records (watercolors of Halstatt burials in Austria, ca. 1850s)
19th Century Scientific Advances
depth of time
Geological principles of stratigraphy and uniformitarianism
The earth was old, not created in 4004 BC as calculated by Dr. John Lightfoot or Archbishop Ussher of Armagh
Greater depth of time for the development of the human species and human societies
19th Century Scientific Advances
antiquity of humankind
Jacques Boucher de Perthes (1788-1868) and the Somme River gravels
Perhaps one of the earliest archaeological site photos, an 1859 dagguerotype Acheulian handaxe in situ 3.4 meters below the modern surface in association with bones of extinct ice age fauna
Demonstrated great changes in the environment since the earliest human occupation of Europe
19th Century Scientific Advances
Evolution
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) developed the idea of evolution through natural selection in his book On the Origin of Species (1859)
Idea of progressive change through time from simple to complex formsChange shaped by adaptation to the environment
19th Century Scientific Advances Anthropology
Anthropology, the scientific study of human cultures, emerged as a discipline
Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881) was a Lawyer who worked with the Iroquois in New York
Developed the idea of unilineal evolution in his work Ancient Society (1877)
Believed human cultures had progressed through successive stages of development
savagery barbarism civilization
Changes based on differences in technology, economy, and social organization
Sponsored archaeological research for his book Houses and House-Life of the American Aborigines (1893)Pioneered studies of kinship and social organization
The Development of Scientific Archaeology
Schliemann and Troy
Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890) was a wealthy German businessman who was fascinated with the Iliad of Homer
Sought to identify the actual location of Troy through archaeological excavation
Schliemann and Troy
Schliemann applied scientific methods to his search for TroyMultiple working hypothesesHypotheses testable with empirical data
Data gathered in the fieldClassical historians had identified two ruins in Turkey that were possibly Troy
BurnarbashiHissarlik
Schliemann excavated at Hissarlik in the 1870s and found data to support the hypothesis that Hissarlik was Troy
Schliemann and Troy
Schliemann dug a broad trench through the ruins of Hissarlik, revealing occupation from the Bronze Age through the Roman Empire
While the scale of his excavations have been criticized in retrospect as destructive, the stratigraphic observations made by Schliemann were at the forefront of archaeological practice of the dayThe other Schliemann
Sophie was Greek and 20 years younger
Courted by Heinrich to be his ideal helpmate on the search for Troy
Responsible for most of the notes and records of the excavations
Shown wearing the “Treasure of Priam” recovered during their excavations Harvard Mission to Ireland: 1930s First Scientific Excavations
Explanatory Period
scientific method and ethnoarchaeology
Lewis Binford (1930- ) is generally acknowledged as the father of the “New Archaeology”
Seminal article in 1960 American Antiquity, “Archaeology as Anthropology”
Explicit use of the scientific method of hypothesis formulation and testing
Understand the inter-relationships between variables of cultural systems
Pioneer of ethnoarchaeology, especially with his studies of Nunumiut hunters in the arctic
Binford’s Nunumiut Ethnoarchaeology
Explanatory Period
systems theory
Systems theory borrowed from computer sciencePrehistoric cultures were systems that can be understood as composed of inter-related variables
Systems are adaptive, changes in one part of the system affects other partsHow do changes in technology, subsistence, or environment affect each other?
Flow chart of Great Basin subsistence scheduling developed by David Hurst Thomas
Explanatory Period
Processual
the “New Archaeology”Archaeology adopted more explicitly scientific methods
Hypothesis formulation and testing
Positivist, objective approach
Sought to answer anthropological questions
How and why did prehistoric cultures change?
Adopted a multi-disciplinary, team-oriented approach to archaeological investigations
Materialist orientation
Post-Processual Archaeology
Ian Hodder at Catal Hoyuk
Noted post-processual archaeologist Ian Hodder has returned with a multi-national team to further excavate Catal Hoyuk in Turkey
Site was excavated in 1960s and has been considered an example of an early farming village in the fertile crescent
Explanatory Period
Post-processual Post-modern archaeology
Relativist, subjective approachQuestions the authority of knowledge
What gives the archaeologist the authority to speak for the past?
Seeks to answer questions once thought beyond the ability of archaeologyIdeology, class, iconography, symbolism, genderExplanatory Period
Cultural Resource Management
Legislation to protect archaeological sites passed beginning in the 1930sProfessionalisation of archaeological managers and contractors
From Greek“a dialogue about the past”Archaeologists study the human pastDo not dig dinosaurs, that is PaleontologyThrough the identification and analysis of past human activityArchitectural remainsRefuse/rubbish, depositsBurials and cemeteriesOthers?History of ArchaeologyExploratory Periodca. 500 BC – 1900Includes Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and the Industrial AgeWhat is out there?Gradual accumulation of knowledge about the diversity of the pastDevelopment of methods of inquiryClassificatory Period1900 – 1950Arranging data in time and spaceCulture HistoryExplanatory Period1950 – presentHow and why do cultural systems changeProcessual and Post-processual archaeologyThe Beginnings of the Exploration of the PastThe earliest human civilizations recognized the traces of their ancestorsSources of mythic pasts and folk beliefsTuath de DanaanThunderstones and Elven-BoltsGiants and TrollsDanes Graves, Danes FortsThe past was often used to reaffirm and reinforce the political power of the rulers NabonidusKing of Babylon from 556 to 539 BCExcavated in temples of Ur to demonstrate his descent from earlier KingsFirst written (in cuneiform) records of investigative excavationNabonidusHis excavations discovered the Shrine to Ishtar, which was expanded upon for his useThe work “made the King’s heart glad and caused his countenance to brighten”However, the Persians conquered Babylon soon afterwardsPope St. Damasus IAD 304-384Known for his preservation and restoration of early Christian sites in RomePatron saint of archaeologistsMedieval BeliefsTapestry detail showing the believed construction of StonehengeSometimes attributed to be MerlinNote large size of the builder, could it be a giant? Medieval BeliefsDetails from an illuminated manuscript of a moral story about buried treasures and the evils of ill-gained wealthPlaced by the devil to temptMedieval Beliefs“Magic Crocks”Spontaneously created in the earthExposed by the activities of burrowing animalsMedieval Beliefs Meet Early SciencePolish King Wladyslaw II ordered excavations to understand this phenomena in 1416Determined to be cremation urns of “pagans” that were exposed by erosionLate Bronze Age (1200-700 BC) cemetery Renaissance and Enlightenment
Rediscovery of Classical Greece and RomeInspiration to art, literature, science
Rise of Antiquarianism
Collecting and displaying objects of antiquity
Leisure pursuit of the upper class
Artifacts were trappings of wealth and an educated mind
Foundations of museums, but items often lacking provenience, loss of contextual information
Beginnings of scientific inquiry
Empirical data collected to answer problemsCiriaco de Pizzicolli
Italian antiquarian (1391-1455)Believed that data from ancient monuments could supplement historic textsRecorded ancient monuments in Italy, Greece, Turkey, and Egypt
Said that his work was “restoring the dead to life”
Much of his work was lost in a library fire, but it was widely referenced by other researchers prior to its destructionSketch of the Parthenon in Athens Michel Mercati (1541-1593) was the superintendent of the Vatican Botanical Gardens
Collection of “ceraunia”Thunderstones and Elven-bolts of folk belief
Determined that they were stone tools made by humans before metals were inventedOne of the earliest illustrations of archaeological artifacts
Antiquarianism
Ole Worm’s Cabinet of Curiosities, Denmark 1655
A typical amalgamation of unusual objects of natural and cultural history assembled in a decontextualized manner that does not seek to explain the meaning of the items
Antiquarianism
Archaeology and Western Imperialism during the Exploratory Period
Find art and artifacts to bring back to the mother countryLooting the cultural heritage of others to glorify imperial conquests
Implicit superiority of the conquerors over the conquered, those who have fallen from earlier glory that now must be rescued and preserved
For Europeans it was often the case that: Living white archaeologists studied dead people of colour
In American archaeology:American archaeology is largely the study of the American Indian
The study of the “other”
Enlightenment
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)Mounds in the US Southeast and Midwest were often attributed to a mythical race of Moundbuilders
Excavated a prehistoric burial mound on his estate in Virginia
Determined that the evidence suggested that it was constructed by ancestors of the region’s Native American cultures, debunking racist myths
1850 painting of the excavation of a mound in Louisiana showing stratified depositsAdvances in Methods
Understanding of the value of information beyond just the aesthetic quality of the artifacts
Provenance – where an artifact was recovered
Context – what type of deposits were the artifact recovered from
Association – what other materials were found with the artifact
Greater attention to notes and other records (watercolors of Halstatt burials in Austria, ca. 1850s)
19th Century Scientific Advances
depth of time
Geological principles of stratigraphy and uniformitarianism
The earth was old, not created in 4004 BC as calculated by Dr. John Lightfoot or Archbishop Ussher of Armagh
Greater depth of time for the development of the human species and human societies
19th Century Scientific Advances
antiquity of humankind
Jacques Boucher de Perthes (1788-1868) and the Somme River gravels
Perhaps one of the earliest archaeological site photos, an 1859 dagguerotype Acheulian handaxe in situ 3.4 meters below the modern surface in association with bones of extinct ice age fauna
Demonstrated great changes in the environment since the earliest human occupation of Europe
19th Century Scientific Advances
Evolution
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) developed the idea of evolution through natural selection in his book On the Origin of Species (1859)
Idea of progressive change through time from simple to complex formsChange shaped by adaptation to the environment
19th Century Scientific Advances Anthropology
Anthropology, the scientific study of human cultures, emerged as a discipline
Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881) was a Lawyer who worked with the Iroquois in New York
Developed the idea of unilineal evolution in his work Ancient Society (1877)
Believed human cultures had progressed through successive stages of development
savagery barbarism civilization
Changes based on differences in technology, economy, and social organization
Sponsored archaeological research for his book Houses and House-Life of the American Aborigines (1893)Pioneered studies of kinship and social organization
The Development of Scientific Archaeology
Schliemann and Troy
Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890) was a wealthy German businessman who was fascinated with the Iliad of Homer
Sought to identify the actual location of Troy through archaeological excavation
Schliemann and Troy
Schliemann applied scientific methods to his search for TroyMultiple working hypothesesHypotheses testable with empirical data
Data gathered in the fieldClassical historians had identified two ruins in Turkey that were possibly Troy
BurnarbashiHissarlik
Schliemann excavated at Hissarlik in the 1870s and found data to support the hypothesis that Hissarlik was Troy
Schliemann and Troy
Schliemann dug a broad trench through the ruins of Hissarlik, revealing occupation from the Bronze Age through the Roman Empire
While the scale of his excavations have been criticized in retrospect as destructive, the stratigraphic observations made by Schliemann were at the forefront of archaeological practice of the dayThe other Schliemann
Sophie was Greek and 20 years younger
Courted by Heinrich to be his ideal helpmate on the search for Troy
Responsible for most of the notes and records of the excavations
Shown wearing the “Treasure of Priam” recovered during their excavations Harvard Mission to Ireland: 1930s First Scientific Excavations
Explanatory Period
scientific method and ethnoarchaeology
Lewis Binford (1930- ) is generally acknowledged as the father of the “New Archaeology”
Seminal article in 1960 American Antiquity, “Archaeology as Anthropology”
Explicit use of the scientific method of hypothesis formulation and testing
Understand the inter-relationships between variables of cultural systems
Pioneer of ethnoarchaeology, especially with his studies of Nunumiut hunters in the arctic
Binford’s Nunumiut Ethnoarchaeology
Explanatory Period
systems theory
Systems theory borrowed from computer sciencePrehistoric cultures were systems that can be understood as composed of inter-related variables
Systems are adaptive, changes in one part of the system affects other partsHow do changes in technology, subsistence, or environment affect each other?
Flow chart of Great Basin subsistence scheduling developed by David Hurst Thomas
Explanatory Period
Processual
the “New Archaeology”Archaeology adopted more explicitly scientific methods
Hypothesis formulation and testing
Positivist, objective approach
Sought to answer anthropological questions
How and why did prehistoric cultures change?
Adopted a multi-disciplinary, team-oriented approach to archaeological investigations
Materialist orientation
Post-Processual Archaeology
Ian Hodder at Catal Hoyuk
Noted post-processual archaeologist Ian Hodder has returned with a multi-national team to further excavate Catal Hoyuk in Turkey
Site was excavated in 1960s and has been considered an example of an early farming village in the fertile crescent
Explanatory Period
Post-processual Post-modern archaeology
Relativist, subjective approachQuestions the authority of knowledge
What gives the archaeologist the authority to speak for the past?
Seeks to answer questions once thought beyond the ability of archaeologyIdeology, class, iconography, symbolism, genderExplanatory Period
Cultural Resource Management
Legislation to protect archaeological sites passed beginning in the 1930sProfessionalisation of archaeological managers and contractors
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)